Ruth Sower

Native American 4th grade children (N=30) from the Tuba City, Arizona Boarding School were provided with a pilot computer program for ten weeks in order to study the feasibility of using LOGO, a computer programming language designed to promote cognitive development, and Bank Street Writer, a word processing program for children. The model program used computers as interactive tools for promoting reasoning and writing. Data were gathered by observational methods, including documenting of child behavior and talk in the regular and the computer classrooms and children’s logs of daily work. Samples of the children’s computer work and the observations by the researchers also provided data for evaluation of the pilot program. Issues of learning styles and teaching styles were discussed in relationship to the needs of Native Americans. The study demonstrated that Native American children can learn in a LOGO environment and that the children, the community, and the school supported such efforts. Finally the study noted that language use in the computer classroom was significantly more evident than in regular classrooms. Language, academic, and cognitive abilities may be fostered in computer settings if long term studies are pursued.

For over 100 years research has accumulated concerning the difficulties experienced in educating Native American children beyond the 4th or 5th grade levels in math or reading (Witthuhn, 1984; Wieczkiewicz, 1979). While a few students achieve higher level academic skills, the vast majority fails in American schools. Such failure effectively prevents the Native American from achieving economic success. Purported causes have been fixed on poorly funded schools, language and cultural differences, the effects of poverty, and the mixed agenda and uncertain goals of the parents and tribal organizations (Berry, 1969).

Work by Philips (1972), John (1972), and Wax and Thomas (1961) provided ethnographic background on Native Americans and offered insight into the culture and school related problems. Wax and Thomas studied child raising practices and noted that noninterference by parents was the characteristic style of discipline. Children at very early ages had great freedom to explore and to create. Discipline was loose and routines were flexible and often nonexistent. John noted that the children learned largely by sight and touch. Communication was frequently by gesture, touch or facial expression. Philips found that the discipline was provided by a wide group including older siblings, grandparents, parents and aunts and uncles. While kinsmen might offer direction, there was no central authority figure in the child’s life until he/she reached school and met the teacher in a typical American public school. In such settings Philips noted that the teacher functioned as a switchboard monitoring and sanctioning all communication. A nonkinsman functioning as a central and controlling figure helped in making the school a very foreign environment for the Native American child.

McDermott (1983) hypothesized that children learned their social roles at a very early age. The relationships between the teacher, who generally belonged to the majority or host population, and children, who had lesser status or belonged to the pariah group, were learned during initial interactions in the schools. Students and teachers in a pariah-host population mix usually produce communication breakdown by simply performing routine and practical everyday activities in ways their subcultures defined as normal and appropriate. Behavioral competence was defined differently by each group thereby resulting in many children and teachers failing in their attempts to establish rational, trusting and rewarding relationships. As a result of these missed communications, McDermott (1983) stated that school learning was shunned by many minority children. Instead of engaging in learning activities, these children withdrew. Present educational methods delivered by the host culture may effectively explain why school failure is a rational adaptation by Native American children to the human relations in the host schools.

Papert offered a way for third world countries to essentially by-pass the past 100 years of school history achieved in technological societies (Coon, 1982). What Papert proposed could suit the Native Americans' situation too. Past attempts to transfer knowledge have often been unsuccessful or destructive because of inappropriate methodology. The process of "catching up" with technologically advanced countries has been the goal of the schools. Often such schooling is a disaster because it forces cultures to copy a traditional model for education. The approach is extremely disruptive of indigenous cultures. Papert believes that nontechnological countries can short circuit the school in the form we know it and go straight into the computer age. For the third world and for the Native American this is an advantage. Schooling has not become institutionalized and has not structured children’s thinking in such places. Native Americans and people of the third world can "leap frog" passsed stages of school development that technological countries struggled through.

The vision of computers used to educate Native Americans seems promising. The Native American culture supports independent exploration. The emphasis on visual and tactile learning has been noted earlier. Such modes of learning are exemplified by the computer learning experiences. If we think of the computer as a tool used to meet the needs of a culture, then the computer could be used to write the Native American stories, before the stories disappear from the oral history of the tribe. The computer could be used to design rugs or jewelry or it could be used to develop further the existing abilities of Native Americans. The graphics and music capabilities of the computer offer opportunities for concrete experiences and interactive learning. The visual elements provided by the keyboard and monitor could also be used to reinforce those language skills and reading skills that appear to need attention.

Papert envisioned computers that would unite fragmented subcultures without homogenizing them. From the present review of Native American needs and learning styles, it is possible to identify some ways that people can learn and enrich their own culture by using computers. It is expected that the indigenous population will find further applications based on the needs of the culture. Solomon (1986) wrote that LOGO centers of study required that everyone be a learner, a teacher, a theory builder, and a theory tester. She noted that, in this respect, LOGO centers of study would provide dramatic or revolutionary change in schooling. Learning, she said, is not a passive process in which children receive knowledge but the learning process is a shared responsibility among all participants. Learning should become an interactive process between the child and the computer, the child and other children, the child and the materials, and the child and the teacher. In a learning environment which fosters multiple interactions it is unlikely that the teacher/student missed communications noted by McDermott (1983) would be of central importance. Also, the teacher would no longer function as the communications switchboard as Philips (1972) noted. The teacher would be a facilitator of learning. The computer then can provide the child with the freedom to explore, which John (1972) said was characteristic behavior for Native American children.

The hypothesis of the present pilot study was that language development would be enhanced through the problem solving methods required for LOGO program writing and by the writing tasks that would be undertaken using Bank Street Writer. Our techniques were observational and our purpose was to explore ways to implement computer use in the classroom. Children were observed by the researchers in their regular class and LOGO classes; everything said by the child was recorded and each of the child’s gross physical movements was recorded. Children’s attitudes, feelings and plans were self recorded during each computer session. School personnel and school board personnel were interviewed by the researchers. Since language development is an integral part of developing reading comprehension, any findings regarding language development may be significant for future study of reading and mathematics skills development for Native Americans. If the computer programming promotes functional communication among peers, it may be effective in promoting cognitive growth and reading skills.

The present study was conducted at the Tuba City Boarding School in Arizona from January to April, 1986. The research was a sabbatical study conducted by the author and a student teacher from Cabrini College. The specific research questions were: (a) Would Navajo children interact with the computer and learn LOGO programming skills? (b) Would the Navajo children find computers, writing programs and LOGO motivating (i.e., would they attend classes, be willing to work on projects)? (c) Would administrators, teachers, and school board members be supportive of the computer programs? (d) Would the children spontaneously talk more in LOGO sessions than they did in other portions of the school program?

The Tuba City Boarding School, sponsored by the Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA), assigned students randomly to one of five 4th grade classes. The study included one 4th grade class plus six students from another class (N = 30). Another group of 30 children consisting of one class of 4th graders plus six students from another class constituted a control group. Experimental and control groups’ scores were compared on annually administered achievement tests (Comprehensive Test of Basic Skills) to determine that there were no significant differences between groups. If the study should be continued as a longitudinal investigation, achievement test pre/post data would be evaluated. Also information comparing dropout rates, attendance and grades would be variables that would be considered by a long term study investigating the effects of interactive educational methods and computer educational practices.

The children were almost all Navajo; two were half Hopi. Some were children of sheep herders and lived in hogans. Some were children of two income earners, lived in BIA housing and spent vacations off the reservation. Many came from families who owned television sets and trucks. But some came from homes with annual incomes under $600. Many spoke of having eight or more brothers and sisters. Some came to the 1st grade speaking only Navajo and some did not know how to speak Navajo. Essentially the Boarding School had become the meeting ground for those who led traditional lives and those who were rapidly adjusting to the pressures of the surrounding Anglo culture.

Instruction was provided in a small classroom located in the Boarding School’s primary building. There were three Apple IIe computers with monitors and printers. Six children attended each of five daily sessions, four times each week. The 10 week instructional period began in January and ended in April, 1986. The program included work with LOGO graphics, some instruction in key boarding skills and work with word processing using Bank Street Writer.

Several kinds of descriptive data were recorded during the course of the project. Each day lesson plans were written and daily evaluations of the lessons were done by the researchers. The daily lesson plans were evaluated in view of these students’ potential for needing special help. Plans were prepared based on the work of Papert (1980) and Solomon (1986). A programming topic was addressed, and students were assisted in developing unique means for carrying out new applications. Children kept daily logs recording their thoughts and feelings and plans for each computer session. Samples of the children’s graphics and their written work were collected and evaluated. Much of their work was included in a book prepared by the children at the end of the project. The purpose of evaluating the children’s daily writing in their log books was to access their level of understanding and interest in the work. Responses were quite positive. Students talked of plans for the next day on the computer, also comments were made often that the pupils "liked" the computer teachers. No one indicated wanting to miss a computer session or being unhappy with the computer sessions. Some said the computer sessions were too short which probably indicates that the sessions were long enough to keep them involved and short enough to maintain motivation. Had there been negative comments we were prepared to alter lesson plans by making sessions shorter or by giving more individualized or adult attention. By evaluating the graphic productions of each child the researchers could assess skill levels compared with children’s work done by Papert (1980) and Solomon (1986). The researchers also made periodic observations in the computer and regular classrooms. These observations on one child were made for 45 minutes to one hour. The child’s behavior and talk were recorded. Data also were collected from meetings with teachers, administrators and school board personnel in order to assess support and involvement of these groups.

Findings based on the computer teacher observational notes and pupils’ log recordings indicated that the children wanted to attend the computer sessions and they spoke about having fun and wanting to come back and stay longer. No child asked to be excluded from the computer sessions. Primary school teachers were encouraging regarding the computer efforts. Some teachers participated in after school computer classes conducted by the researchers indicating more than a casual interest in the work. Teachers and aides visited the computer classroom frequently and asked about the work. The local school board welcomed our efforts. No one questioned whether computers would interfere with the Native culture. The presence of television, video players and trucks in the community was evidence that some portions of the Anglo culture were considered a welcome invasion. While many people respected and practiced the tribal customs and religious practices, there was tolerance for the technological changes that might help children progress in school and in the world of work. The school administrators provided space, equipment, and facilitated every aspect of the program. While parents were not frequent visitors in the boarding school, there were some parents who visited the school, asked about the program, and expressed interest in the work. Essentially the school and community demonstrated interest in computer education and offered support for the present study.

The children learned to program using LOGO. Everyone mastered the basic graphics commands and most of the children learned to write programs and make pictures using subprocedures. Individual interests and approaches varied but generally the children expressed concern for planning work, for completing projects and for playing LOGO games. Their skills were not unlike beginners’ skills as reported by Papert (1980) and Solomon (1986). They came to class with ideas for drawing graphics and ideas about how to write programs. Also, they expressed enjoyment when exploring LOGO, making patterns, working with large numbers, and trying the "wrap" designs. There was no evidence of deficiency in thinking skills. They explored using more than one variable and they worked on nesting concepts. There was ample evidence of creativity, independent thinking, and a real effort to take charge of their own learning. Girls were just as interested as boys. Others had suggested that Navajo girls might be reticent in working with boys. They were not shy or withdrawn, however, when choosing partners for computer work, most of the children would choose same sex partners. We found that these children could plan, explore, debug, and build. Some liked to write formal programs and then proceed with the computer work, but most of the children worked in a trial and error fashion. They would begin with one idea and then proceed with other ideas and plans as they worked.

The children spent three weeks learning key boarding skills after having worked with LOGO for four weeks. Using the program "Microtype, the Wonderful World of Paws" they had no difficulty in learning the appropriate key board reaches and mastering the basics of typing. The children did not become proficient typists because there was not enough time to practice these skills. Children learned how to use Bank Street Writer and the researchers either acted as typists and the pupil acted as editor or the positions were reversed. Children were encouraged to write about things that they knew well or to write things based on their cultural experiences or imagination. The children wrote to pen pals, they interviewed and wrote stories about other people, and they wrote original stories and poetry. These tasks were interactive in that the teacher and the pupil worked together on the word processor, they interviewed others, they read or listened to each other’s work, and, finally, they shared their work in book form with other classmates, parents, and teachers.

The recordings made in the regular classes and in the computer classes provided interesting information regarding pupil talk. A series of observations were made in two regular classrooms and in the computer classroom. The observer recorded all behavior and talk for one child for 45 minutes to one hour periods. Differences in talk between settings were dramatic. In the regular classroom the children seldom talked. If there was any talk, it was short responses to the teacher’s questions, unauthorized whispers to a neighbor, or the child asking for directions or permission. In contrast, in the computer classroom there was much talk. Children read their log book entries to each other. There were spontaneous questions regarding daily plans and procedures. If the computer teacher was explaining a new concept, such as editing, then there might be a period of 10 to 15 minutes when the children listened and asked questions of the teacher. Most of the time, several pupils were talking together and frequently the teacher was talking quietly to one person. In the regular classrooms the spoken language was English. On the playgrounds and in the dormitories there was more opportunity to hear the children speaking Navajo. In the computer classroom one could hear Navajo interspersed with LOGO primitives. For children who still think best in their native language, the LOGO classes offered a setting in which the children’s thought processes could be enriched using their native tongue in service of accomplishing a rather sophisticated thinking and programming activity.

The computer classroom was a rich language experience for three reasons: (a) the children worked in pairs and were expected to communicate with each other, (b) the children determined the nature of the work and therefore the traditional teacher’s role had changed primarily from lecturer to facilitator, (c) the ratio of teacher to children was quite different in the computer classroom, 1:6 in the computer classroom and 1:25 in the regular classroom. A high teacher ratio in the computer classroom meant that the teacher could converse with individuals much more easily. There was less need for rules and more time for verbal negotiations.

The role of the teacher is a most significant variable in the LOGO classroom. If the teacher no longer fills the central role of "provider of knowledge" then the children must take an active role in learning. In such an environment the child makes many decisions. He/she can determine success or failure. If a program fails, he/she can decide whether to fix it or move on. If children are making decisions about what they have learned and what they will do, it seems less likely that the teacher can play the role of determining status. The child’s relationship with his/her work is a direct one. There is less reason for competition and more cause for sharing and cooperating as pupils work together and borrow ideas from one another. The LOGO environment also demands a different role for teachers and a new relationship between peers in the classroom. The interactive nature of the computer learning experiences may circumvent some of the problems encountered when the teachers and students come from different cultures.

The language experience in the LOGO classroom is characterized by much verbal interchange among peers, with the teacher, and indeed, in talking aloud to oneself. In such an environment English as a second language or a bilingual program could be introduced. The microworlds of LOGO provide a common experiential background for children. These microworlds can be the focus of conversation and thought. In LOGO the meaning of words is precise and consistent and the feedback is unfailing. The increased need for using oral and written language precisely is rigorously reinforced in the LOGO environment. The fact that pupils can speak to each other in either language, build programs in the language of their choice, and then control the use of that language would seem to be a critical element in learning to speak and think in a language, whether it be Navajo or English.

The logs were also useful language building tools. Pupils wrote about their plans and their feelings, and they shared those writings with their classmates. Reading, writing, and thinking were then combined in LOGO programs so that learning could be fostered in many ways. There was concept development, language development, and social interaction when children used computer programming skills. Computer literacy was taught but not by learning vocabulary or by lecturing. These children learned that computers could help them and that they could master the computer. They understood that they had amassed a number of skills that would assist them whenever they encountered a computer, be it a microwave, an arcade game, or the family truck. Computer literacy is best expressed by having an "I can do it" attitude towards computers. LOGO expertise helps provide that attitude.

The importance of learning LOGO has been explained by many researchers. It was the purpose of this paper to acquaint the reader with some special learning needs of Native Americans, and with some special strengths and abilities of these people, and to try to relate how the computer can meet those needs. The present study noted the use of language in the computer classroom as perhaps an important step towards children’s gaining a better understanding of language. The social interaction in the computer classroom encouraged peer to peer communication and talk in both languages. Significant in the present study was identification of the need for a new definition of the teacher’s role in a LOGO environment and the potential benefits of such redefinition to Native American children. If the present study can be continued, or other studies can be offered providing an adequate program and the necessary hardware for at least four years, we can begin to measure potential gains. Achievement test measures, measures of cognitive development, attendance, dropout rates, and measures of adult accomplishments should be studied. Such studies will be useless unless there is adequate hardware, sufficient time for computer activity, and teachers with knowledge and skills.

The project was an exploratory one providing ample evidence of the children’s interest and ability. Now it is time to plan for long term studies that will measure potential effects of the LOGO/computer environment. The positive response from the children, school and community may mean that the computer will be a strong motivational tool. It may help children maintain an interest in school and indeed help them remain in school.

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