Volume 25 Number 2
January 1986

Paul L. Beare

BEHAVIORALLY DISORDERED ADOLESCENTS who are members of minority groups are in a double or triple bind. Not only are there turmoil of adolescence, cultural concerns and biases of society to be dealt with, but also the challenge of behavioral difficulties. In particular, there is a dearth of effective existing regular school programs for Native American students (American Indian Policy Review Commission, 1976). This is reflected by high dropout rates and academic deficiencies. Chadwick, Bahr and Strauss (1979) found that the dropout rate exceeds 50 percent for Native Americans and that 75 percent of those still in school were one or more grades behind their age equivalent peers.

Historically, American Indian children have been reported to be more rejected, depressed and withdrawn than white children (Blyde, 1970). Research by Martin (1978) indicated that significantly more Native American children have an external locus of control than do white children of the same age. He demonstrated that lower self-concept is correlated with this and hypothesized that other negative personality characteristics might also be associated. Coleman (1966) reports that Indians view themselves as inferior to whites on scales of self-concept and self-esteem.

To compound difficulties further, the Native American student in the Upper Midwest often lived in impoverished, rural areas (Miller, 1984). Whereas, even regular educational services in rural areas suffer in comparison to those services offered in urban areas (Sher, 1978), effective special educational services are particularly difficult to establish and maintain. Rural areas suffer from specialized personnel shortages, lack of adjunctive human services, organizational, and transportation difficulties--all of which contribute problems in program development (Helge, 1981).

A growing number of professionals view the ideal special education or emotional disturbance service goal to be facilitating a goodness of fit, a congruence, between students and their existing school environment (Hobbs, 1966; Beare, 1981; Swap, 1978).

The purpose of this study was to measure the efficacy of a program designed to facilitate goodness of fit between behaviorally disordered students and a particular rural school. This school, named Smallville for purposes of the study, was located adjacent to a large Indian reservation. A substantial portion, 32 percent, of all students in this school are Native Americans. Native Americans comprise 88 percent of the Smallville dropouts (Annual Report of the Secretary of the Board of Education, 1981). A minority of all students who were involved in the treatment program were Anglo, while 64 percent were Native Americans. The described treatment program was designed to effect positive change of students academic performance, attendance rate, and classroom attendance behavior in order to assist these behaviorally disordered students in fulfilling their appropriate role as students.

All students involved in the program attended Smallville Public School. Located in a town whose population was 390, the school served 905 students grades K-12. The treatment program was located in the high school, which served 462 students.

Three types of students were considered for participation in the treatment program, entitled STEP (Start Today to Effect Progress). They were: (1) students seriously considering dropping out of school; (2) in-school dropouts (characterized by poor attendance rate, excessive numbers of unexcused tardies and failing grades); and (3) students exhibiting severe behavior disorders which impeded their academic performance.

The level of behavior disorders of the students in the first two sections was generally severe enough to warrant official labeling if needed to qualify students for the program. Many students also experienced difficulties in areas of legal infractions, chemical abuse or dependency, family disturbances, and minority conflicts. Participation in the program was initiated by self-referral, teacher referral, or parental referral. After the referral process was initiated special education procedures as outlined by Public Law 94-142 were followed.

The subjects utilized for this study numbered 14, 12 females and two males. They were selected out of the 25 students served in the program over a two-year period. All students who had spent three consecutive quarters in the school system prior to participating in the treatment program and were involved in the treatment program for three-quarters of a year were included. This qualification was placed because of the type of data utilized to measure treatment efficacy, as will be explained. The target students ranged in age from 13-15 at the time of placement in the treatment program; grades ranged from seventh to tenth.

It is difficult to ascertain student behavioral change over a long period of time, particularly in a small school district. Objective teacher ratings are often difficult to use in measuring such change due to expectations and previous experiences with the same student. Pre- and post-ratings by different teachers does very little good in a small district where all students are familiar to all teachers. School goodness of fit and behavior were thus measured by data normally collected on all students from school transcripts and attendance records. There is obvious validity to this because it directly reports on the variables which comprise goodness of fit.

For operational purposes, the number of failing grades measured academic goodness of fit. The goal for many mildly handicapped students is to simply pass a course, thus failure measures how well they are fitting into the school system. Level of passing is relatively unimportant for any passing grade earns credits and avoids retention. The number of unexcused tardies and the overall attendance rate measured overall goodness of fit. School absences and school tardies are large factors in adolescents having trouble with school administrators and teachers, and reflect academic and behavioral performance.

Several specific methods were incorporated into the treatment program in an effort to accomplish the goal of the intervention, which was to achieve goodness of fit between the student and the school environment. A principle method incorporated into the program was the use of Goal Attainment Scaling (GAS). GAS provided for treatment contact through which a student learned to set realistic expectations, monitor progress, and achieve recognition or improvement. Originally conceived by Kiresuk and Sherman (1968), it has been used in a number of Upper Midwest programs for behavior disordered students (Harris and Thompson, 1978). The use of GAS has a number of advantages in working with secondary level behaviorally disordered students. GAS provides goals and objectives that are mutually negotiated between student and instructor. GAS works on specific objectives and does not rely on any sort of a label to treat students. It ensures realistic expectations for students future and gives continuous consistent feedback as to rate of growth and improvement.

The actual process of GAS involved daily and weekly meetings between the instructor and the student, during which specifically stated goals were formulated. The goals focused on problems students are having in school. All students were expected to write one attendance goal, one unexcused tardy goal, and one goal for each academic class. Many times target students were also experiencing personal problems which contributed to a lack of fit in school. Personal goals were related to drug abuse, relationships with peers and family, physical appearance, conflicts with authority, depression, anxiety, or future plans. All students were expected to have at least four goals at any one time; however, there was no upper limit restricting the number possible.

After goals were completed they were typed to further emphasize their importance. One copy was attached to the student's Individualized Education Plan (IEP), one was given to the student, and one was retained by the STEP instructor. On a weekly basis, the student and instructor met and scored the student on attainment of the goal.

The second major intervention procedure used in the program was group session. The decision to use group session as a method of intervention was based on four considerations. The first consideration revolved around the need for a feeling of belonging for STEP students. Group sessions provided the basis for cohesiveness among members. Members were able to identify themselves as part of a group versus an isolated part of an alien school system. The second consideration was allowing feedback from other students which would enable the exploration of alternative styles of interaction. Under the supervision of group leaders, this feedback could take place in a positive, supportive environment.

The third consideration was the provision of models (group leaders) who exhibited appropriate interaction styles in relating to each other and to their own environment. The fourth consideration was that group sessions allowed for weekly review of goals in a situation which allowed members to receive feedback from others as to possible methods for achieving goals.

Students who participated in group sessions were scheduled into groups as if they would have been scheduled into any other class. In order not to lose needed graduation credits, students were scheduled in the group in lieu of the study hall.

To further legitimize the group sessions in the STEP program, elective credit was given to those students participating in the treatment program. By offering credit for participation, it was made explicit that there was work to be accomplished.

A third method of intervention was individual sessions between the STEP instructor and the student. Weekly 15-minute sessions were scheduled with each student to re-evaluate goal performance, academic performance, and any other concern the student was experiencing. This was an attempt to encourage and maintain a positive relationship between the student and the STEP instructor. In these sessions, much emphasis was placed on the positive aspects of student behavior.

The fourth method utilizes individual tutoring. The STEP instructor and an educational aide scheduled part of the day to attend the mainstrearned classes. This served a variety of purposes. It allowed the STEP instructor to obtain day-by-day knowledge of the student in a variety of settings, it allowed for on-the-spot observation of strengths and weaknesses of each student, and it provided information about the student regarding peer and teacher interaction and behavioral reactions to outside stimuli that was essential in helping the students set realistic goals. This method also enabled the instructor to give on-the-spot first aid to the student experiencing difficulty in academic situations and it increased the visability of the STEP instructor and the treatment program.

In the past, perhaps due to the isolation of special educators, many misconceptions have evidenced regarding the activities of special educators. With the STEP instructor assisting the teacher in the classroom, increased rapport and communication was possible.

The last method utilized was out of school activities for participating STEP students. These activities allowed for a structured, non-threatening environment which was still seen as an aspect of the school system and encouraged students to explore alternative types of recreation. The activities were structured to provide opportunities to develop self-confidence and increase self-esteem. Students were able to acquire new, non-academic skills which allowed them to be reinforced for their endeavors. Types of activities that were held include cross country skiing, hiking trips, and an overnight excursion to a lake cabin.

Changes in academic performance were assessed through comparison of the number of failing grades in the last three academic quarters of the school year prior to program entry to the number of failing grades in the last three academic quarters of the first year of participation in the treatment program. Comparison was made in three areas: overall number of failing grades, number of academic failing grades, and number of non-academic failing grades.

Thirteen of the 14 students showed a decrease in the overall number of failing grades for the treatment period. The mean was 7.86 for pretreatment as compared to 3.93 for the treatment period, this is a decrease of 3.93 failing grades per student. The WALSH test for small group pre- and post-test evaluation showed the two groups to be significantly different at the p<.05 level.

Twelve of the 14 students showed improvement in a number of academic failing grades with the remaining two students showing no change from pretreatment to treatment. The mean was 6.29 for pre-treatment as compared to 2.5 for treatment, showing a decrease of 3.79 failing grades in academic areas. The WALSH test for small group pre- and post-test evaluation showed the two means to be significantly different at the p<.05 level.

Seven of the 14 target students showed improvement in a number of non-academic failing grades, four students demonstrated no change and three students had an increase in the number of failing non-academic grades. Nonacademic classes included such things as shop, physical education and music. This measure was included because of evidence (Boseker and Gordon, 1983) that these classes contribute as much or more to Native Americans dropping out than do academic classes. The mean was 1.57 for pre-treatment as compared to 1.43 during treatment, showing a decrease of .14. The WALSH test did not indicate significant difference between these two means.

Eleven of the 14 target students showed improvement in a number of unexcused tardies. The remaining three students showed an increase in the number of unexcused tardies. The mean was 14.43 tardies for pre-treatment, in comparison to 9.14 for treatment, indicating a decrease of 5.29 unexcused tardies. The WALSH test for small group pre-, post-test evaluation showed the two means to be significantly different at the p>.05 level.

Five of the 14 students improved their attendance rate more than five days. Five of the students exhibited a decline of 1-5 days absent. Four of the students were absent at least five more days during treatment than pretreatment. The mean was 18.36 for pre-treatment in comparison to 16.43 during the treatment period, indicating a decrease of almost two in the number of days absent. The WALSH test showed no significance between pretreatment and treatment conditions.

The major finding in this study was the acquisition of appropriate learning behavior and skills by the students which enabled them to successfully function in their expected roles as students. These adolescents had previously exhibited difficulties of fulfilling the expectations of this role. The majority of students had experienced confrontations with teachers and administrators and had been suspended for deviant behavior at one time or another.

Prior to involvement in the treatment program 86 percent of these students were not able to meet academic course requirements and were required to repeat one or more courses. Fifty percent of the adolescents had been required to repeat one or more entire academic grade. From the significant improvements shown in academic performance and classroom attendance behavior, it is evident that a better goodness of fit between these students and their school environment was achieved while they participated in the treatment program.

There are a number of features which may have contributed to the improvement of academic performance and classroom behavior. This includes participation in the Goal Attainment Scaling where the students had to take responsibility for setting their own goals. Perhaps this helped increase their internal locus of control and have more intrinsic motivation in relationship to school related activities. The availability of individual tutoring and counseling sessions perhaps made the students feel more a part of the school setting and made them feel that the school as an entity was interested in their welfare and improvement. The involvement in the group session made the students also feel part of the school environment.

The major lack of efficacy in the intervention program was the attempt to improve attendance rates of the students. While the project indicated an overall improvement in attendance rates, this was not a significant increase. The lack of attendance might have been due to other factors in the Native American community at the time. Studies have shown that Native Americans tend to have lower attendance than non-Native Americans (Minnesota Department of Education, 1980). Poor attendance rates of these students might be reflective of home situations which students were involved.

Cultural differences between the teachers and administrators and the students and their families were a source of much racism being propagated by all involved. Teachers' and administrators' expectations of Native Americans were lower than those held of non-Native Americans. This evidenced through comments made at teacher meetings, IEP staffings, and simple informal discussions. Also, many teachers held negative views and attitudes toward behavior disordered students and consequently viewed the treatment program in a negative manner. These attitudes were evidenced by teacher neglect to participate in IEP staffings, failure to complete evaluations of students and failure to implement the suggested interventions in mainstream classes.

The administration might have contributed indirectly to poor attendance rates. Truancy petitions were seldom filed on students with poor attendance, particularly students living on the nearby reservation. This may have been due, in part, to county courts reluctant to prosecute these cases.

The general rural nature of the area compounded shortcomings in school service delivery systems. Helge (1979) indicated that the lack of adjunctive services in rural areas means that school systems are placed in the position of dealing with social, behavioral, and economic problems and urban settings would be dealt with by community agencies and organizations. This was particularly evident in this school setting which lacked needed qualified ancillary personnel to deal with previously mentioned concerns. The district did employ two Native Americans as liaisons in an attempt to achieve positive relationships between the community and the environment. Over extension of duties or lack of a clear role hampered their effectiveness.

This intervention program would appear to be one which did change fit in a certain environmental setting. It would seem that this fit should be the true goal for all of special education (Hobbs, 1966; Beare, 1981). This result of the intervention was the target student began to fulfill role expectations as students. They increased the likelihood of staying in school.

The question of transference arises as to whether these gains will increase their chances for a successful life experience. Home environment, conditions on the reservation, community mores for this particular area often are incongruent with the larger society. Change in school behavior may not change the reality of the students' lives. It is difficult for students to internalize multiple sets of values. This is a dilemma faced any time one alters environment specific maladaptive behavior in bicultural students. Perhaps any intervention needs to help expand students horizons and aspirations so they may see value and functioning lifestyles that exist outside their community.

American Indian Policy Review Commission (1976). Report on Indian Education. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office. Annual Report of the Secretary of the Board of Education (1981). Smallville Public Schools.

Bahr, H. M., Chadwick, B. A., and Strauss, J. (1976). Indian education in the city: Correlates of academic performance. Journal of Educational Research, 36-43.

Beare, P. (1981). Mainstreaming approach for behaviorally disordered secondary students in a rural school district. Behavioral Disorders, 6, 209-21

Blyde, J. F. (1970). The Sioux Indian studies: A study of scholastic failure and personality conflict. Vermillion, SD: Dakota Press.

Boseker, B. J., and Gordon, S. L. (1983). What Native Americans have taught us as teacher educators. Journal of American Indian Education, 20-24.

Coleman, J. (1966). Equality of educational opportunity. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office.

Harris, L. H., and Thompson, J. W. (1978). Goal attainment scaling: A primary method of treatment and program evaluation in Project SAIL. Minnetonka, MN, Lindbergh High School.

Helge, D. I. (1979). Final project report of the national rural research project. Murray, KY: Murray State University.

Helge, D. I. (1981). Problems in implementing comprehensive special education programming in rural areas. Exceptional Children, 47, 514-522.

Hobbs, N. (1966). Helping disturbed children: Psychological and ecological strategies, American Psychologist, 21, 1105-1115.

Kiresuk, T. J., and Sherman, R. D. (1968). Goal attainment scaling: A general method for evaluating comprehensive community mental programs. Community Mental Health Journal, 4, 443-453.

Martin, J. L. (1978). Locus of control and self-esteem in Indian and white students. Journal of American Indian Education, 18, 23-29.

Miller, N. J. (1984). People: Indian culture strengthens programs. Interim, 34-37.

Minnesota Department of Education, Indian Education Section (180). Legislature on American Indian language and culture education, 3-7.

Sher, J. P. (1978). A proposal to end federal neglect of rural schools. Phi Delta Kappan, 60, 280-282.

Swap, S. (1978). The ecological model of emotional disturbance in children: A status report and proposed syntheses. Behavioral Disorders, 3, 186-196.

NORMA ALTMAN-BERGSETH has a master's degree from Moorhead State University in the area of emotional disturbance. She served as an ED teacher for Native American students at a high school located on an Indian Reservation in Minnesota. Currently she is ED consultant for a rural special education cooperative in Northwest Minnesota.