Volume 21 Number 1
May 1982

Of all the teachings we receive
this one is most important:

Nothing belongs to you of what there is,
Of what you take, you must share.

Touch a child-they are my people.

--Chief Dan George in My Heart Soars

Contrary to popular belief, education -- the transmission of and acquisition of knowledge and skills-did not come to the North American continent on the Nina, Pinta and Santa Maria.

-Henritta Whiteman, 1978

EDUCATION IS, and always has been, an important aspect of American Indian life. Traditions, philosophy, and tribal history have been handed down orally from generation to generation. The Miccosukee Tribe in Florida strongly emphasizes the use of oral tradition, for they feel that to "pick up a pen" would radically change their tribal value system. Contrast this educational philosophy with the "melting pot" concept, and the result is the failure we call Indian education. There are more than 400 tribes and nations, each with differing economic, social and religious lifestyles, yet educational policy in the past has treated Indian people as the same in the North.

During the Colonial period, the Jesuits taught Christianity and the French culture, as well as academic subjects. In the South, the Franciscans influenced the education of many of the native people in vocational skills. In the East, many protestant missionary schools were established for the education of American Indians. The federal government funded many mission schools early into the 19th century, until public protest on the unconstitutional nature of such funding forced the closing of the mission schools by the late 1880s (see Note 9).

The mission school movement was follows by federally operated boarding schools. Many of the schools were in abandoned army forts near the reservations, with the military atmosphere still present. Basic literacy skills as well as vocational training were the emphasis here, in an attempt to "assimilate" the American Indian into the dominant society.

A change in educational policy occurred in 1930, when an emphasis was placed on upgrading the federal boarding schools and encouraging Indians to enroll in public schools near their home communities. Unfortunately, this era was short-lived, when the "termination" of federal financial assistance reduced some tribes to a poverty level existence. Recent federal policy favors "self-determination" for Indians, including the assumption of the responsibility of the educational system.

The federal government in recent years has funded Indian-operated tribal schools which are usually on or near the reservations. There are approximately 30 such schools now in existence, and Indian people draw upon the historical evidence of success in this area. In the 19th century, the Choctaw and Cherokee nations successfully operated Indian educational systems. In fact, several published texts of the Choctaw language were used in the beginning of bilingual instruction in the Choctaw schools in 1827, with the idea "that it would be easier to teach first in the native language and later in English" (see Note 20). Indian people believe that the language, history and values should be reflected in the educational offerings in all systems, be they public, private or tribally operated.

Roger Buffalohead, former chairman of the Indian Studies Department at the University of Minnesota, recently discussed some of the basic educational obligations that Indian tribes have to Indian children:

The public schools success rate in Indian education is far from impressive. In 1969, the report entitled, Indian Education: A National Tragedy-A National Challenge, shocked many educators with the ineffectiveness of the educational system for American Indians. Dropout rates were averaging around 40 percent, with some as high as 100 percent in some areas. This was reported to be twice the national average in both public and federal schools. A later report by Fuchs and Havinghurst stated that a very conservative figure for Indian dropout rates is 43 percent (1972).

In a recent report, it was predicted over 60 percent of the Indian students in the Minneapolis area would drop out of high school before graduation (see Note 21). According to the, Minnesota Advisory Committee to the U.S. Commission on Civil Rights, virtually no progress has been made to reduce the drop out rate of Indian students, which is significantly higher than that of other races. Only 3.5 percent of all Indian men and 2.5 percent of Indian women have four or more years of college.

Another report entitled, American Indians in the Profession-1980 (see Note 19) the highest number of Indians with bachelor's degrees were public school teachers. These still only number 3,534 out of 300,000 in the United States total. This is also true of the other fields of study such as law (250 Indians out of 462,000) and medicine (115 Indians out of 340,000). American Indians holding earned doctorate degrees in all fields number 200 out of the United States total of more than 600,000. There are no American Indian geologists or business majors with a doctorate.

The term "culturally disadvantaged," which is often used to explain poor achievement, implies that there is an absence of cultural experience, and teachers therefore must try to fill this void. In reality, the Indian student has a different set of cultural experiences. One group that has studied American Indians for centuries comes from the field of anthropology. They have studied every aspect of Indian life, from social to religious, economic to environmental. Many of their reports conflict in the analysis of the American Indian, and yet these researchers have had an impact on the educational practices.

The earliest topic for research was kinship, begun in the late 1700s by the Jesuits and picked up later by Morgan (see Note 16). He analyzed the Iroquois family structure, but a later study in the developing child's organizational structure was reported by Levi-Strauss (see Note 12). His observations led him to believe that the "disadvantaged" child must be forced to accept a different organizing structure. This implies the use of coercion on the part of the teacher. The child would then reject the choice that he normally would have made on the basis of his own experience and as a member of his own group.

Studies in psychological anthropology indicate that there are two common fallacies committed by anthropologists. One is the "global" fallacy, defined as the attempt to deal with a complex holistic construct like "personality" or "perceptual structure" as a variable. The other or "jumping" fallacy is defined as the application of unvalidated interpretive hypotheses concerning the meaning of Rorschach scores and profiles (see Note 23). According to Spindler, these fallacies were evident in all of the early studies of the Menominee and Ojibwa people. She later developed instruments that were tribe specific for a study of the Blood Indians. These consisted of 24 line drawings by a professional Blood Indian artist depicting Indians engaged in activities, consistent with the tribal customs. Her research indicated that acculturative adaptation and socioeconomic status were not necessarily concurrent among the Blood Indians. Some of the men and women who are highly successful ranchers speak their native language well and belong to traditional societies. The Blood are able to cope with the demands of the surrounding non-Indian society and still keep a strong cultural identity. These instruments were developed when the researcher discovered that she, herself, had committed the fallacies, and that instrumentation based on Western philosophy was inappropriate for American Indian study.

When speaking of more than 400 distinct groups, it is not appropriate make generalizations that should apply to all Indians. However, there are some commonalities that will be mentioned. Many different Indian tribes have the following values that may influence school performance for their children: (see Note 4) avoidance of competition; high value on cooperation; strong peer influence.

As indicated by the previous statement by Forbes on traditional values, Hess (see Note 11) found that high levels of classroom competition were negatively related to school achievement. Also significant in this research was the avoidance of competition, "especially when the implied competition was with peers, rather than with a standard of excellence."

Brown compared classroom behavior of Cherokee and Anglo grade school students. He found that the Cherokee children were less competitive and more cooperative than their Anglo counterparts, and that their cooperative behavior was negatively related to measures of their academic achievement. Peer influence was also found to be another important factor in performance, and should be considered in determining the appropriate classroom climate.

Based on the research presented above, the following may be appropriate and effective teaching strategies which can be used with Indian American students.

1. The physical structure of the school should reflect the local cultural heritage. The students can paint murals depicting local historical events, and also design the bulletin boards to reflect their specific tribal interests. The name of the school should also reflect tribal heritage such as Heart of the Earth School in Minneapolis, Minnesota.

2. The local language should be used by the teachers whenever it is appropriate. This will enhance communications both with the students and their parents. Classroom aides, fluent in the native language, should also be use whenever possible, as required in Ramah Navajo School.

3. Printed materials should reflect the local Indian history, traditions and language. Student generated newspapers and booklets such as Tsa' Aszi from the Navajo school encourage cultural journalism for the language arts requirements.

4. States require a social studies unit in third or fourth grade on the state history. The names of towns, counties or rivers which reflect Indian history should be researched as a class project. An example of the Lumbee history in the State of North Carolina is evidenced in the U.N.I.T.Y. curriculum kit.

5. American Indian music uses vocables. Each tribe has distinctive songs for each ceremony. Dr. Louis Ballard has assembled many tribal songs and recorded them with a set of materials explaining the historical significance of the songs. For example, with Kiowa students, learning a Round Dance song would be appropriate.

6. In the study of nutrition, American Indian students should know the harvest plants that were cultivated prior to European contact (corn beans, squash and peppers are examples). Other uses of plants should be studies for their local history-trading, medicine and dyes. For examples, see Indian Curriculum Materials developed by Anandarka Area Office, 1980.

7. For an art class, the subject should reflect the specific tribal customs. An example is Cheyenne design, which is derived from five sources-teepee, circle of life, cardinal points, the stars, and maker-life. Colors used by the Cheyennes are green, blue, yellow, black, red, and white.

8. Oral history: Many schools encourage community participation in the planning and development of new courses. For example, the Seneca nation of Indians brings the elders to the school to relate their tribal history, these sessions are videotaped for use in other classroom or future use.

9. Recognition of American Indian celebrations. In many areas, tribal celebrations play a significant part in the social and cultural development of the student. The observance and participation in these events such as Shalako for the Zuni are important aspects of American Indian culture.

10. In government class, the study of the tribal structure is just as important as the study of the Senate and House of Representatives. In some tribes, the females, as does the Onondogas clan mother, select the male tribal leaders.

11. In the study of literature, Indian students should compare the creation story of their own tribe to one of another tribe. Each tribe has its own story of creation, and students can analyze their own creation story and that of another tribe to similarities and differences. Two suggestions are: The Way to Rainy Mountain by N. Scott Momaday and Traditions of the Caddo by George A. Dorsey.

12. Media: Films and filmstrips in the American Indian classroom should be representative of the local culture. If no films are available, videotaping elders or using student-developed filmstrips that reflect the tribal culture are appropriate. More Than Bows and Arrows, narrated by N. Scott Momaday, and Proud To Be are good resources.

13. Individualization or small group instruction is the most appropriate for many Indian students. The Miccosukee place a strong emphasis on learner initiated instruction, and their classrooms emphasize the use of learning centers.

14. Field trips to tribal buildings help to place the Indian students in an environment that may be less threatening than the classroom. This also helps to promote mutual understanding between the educational system and the community. Frequent field trips to tribal offices are used by the Ojibwa in Canada as described in their curriculum guide-People of Native Ancestry.

15. Evaluation: It is appropriate in every educational system to employ some method to measure program effectiveness. The teacher should consider cultural bias, and carefully select an instrument to assess achievement. McShane (see Note 13) found that Indian students tend to score well on performance type items as one found in preschool, first and second grade tests. The Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test and the Cooperative Preschool Inventory are suggested by research conducted by Young and Churchman (see Note 28).

The American Indian student enters the school system with a cultural heritage and set of values appreciably different from that of the educational system itself. It should be the aim of the system to adapt to the needs of the Indian student, not to try to change the student to fit into the system. The aim of Indian education should be "to try to help children to grow so that they have the strength to follow a path where they can see the entire world and other humans as their responsibility" (see Note 8).

This article has given an historic overview of Indian education and values. Specific teaching strategies for Native American students were suggested as appropriate to these culturally different people.

1 American Indian Culture and Research Journal, 4 (4). American Indian Studies Center, University of California, Los Angeles, 1980.

2. American Indian Policy Review Commission. Final Report to Congress, Washington, D.C., 1976.

3. Barnouw, V. Culture and Personality. Howewood, Illinois: Dorsey Press, 1963.

4. Brown, A.D. The Cross-Over Effect: A Legitimate Issue in Indian Education. Multicultural Education and the American Indian, 1979, 93-107.

5. Buffalohead, R. Kitchie Onigamigy Bimadising. Grand Portage, Minnesota: November 1979, 1(2).

6. Coalition of Indian Controlled School Board News. Denver, Colorado: September-October 1978, p. 5.

7. Deloria, V. Legislative Analysis of the Federal Role in Indian Education. Washington, D.C., 1975.

8. Forbes, J. Traditional Native American Philosophy and Multicultural Education. Multicultural Education and the American Indian, 1979, p. 3-12.

9. Fuchs, E., and Havinghurst, R., To Live on This Earth: American Indian Education. Garden City, New Jersey: Doubleday, 1973.

10. General Accounting Office. Indian Education in the Public School System Needs More Direction from the Congress. Washington, D.C.: CAU, 1977.

11. Hess, D. The American Indian and Academic Achievement Toward a Processual Model. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Michigan State University.

12. Levi-Strauss, C. The Elementary Structures of Kinship. Boston, Massachusetts: Beacon Press, 1969.

13. McShane, D. "Assessment of American Indian Children Using Wechsler Intelligence Scales: A Review." White Cloud Journal, Summer 1979.

14. Medicine, B. The Native American Today. San Francisco, California: Indian Historian Press, 1974.

15. Minnesota Advisory Committee on Civil Rights. Bridging the Gap: A Reassessment, January 1978.

16. Morgan, L. Systems of Consanguinity and Affinity of the Human Family. Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian, 1871.

17. National Advisory Council on Indian Education. Education for Indian Survival as a People: A Goal for the 1980s. Washington, D.C.: 1980.

18. National Advisory Council on Indian Education. Indian Education Is "Sui Generis": Of Its Own Kind. Washington, D.C.: 1979.

19. Native American Information Center. American Indians in the Profession, Muskogee, 1980.

20. Noley, G. "Choctaw Bilingual and Bicultural Education in the 19th Century." Multicultural Education and the American Indian, p. 28-29.

21. Red School House Proposal. Minneapolis, Minnesota: 1980.

22. Rossi, I. People in Culture. New York: Praeger Press, 1980.

23. Spindler, L. "Researching the Psychology of Cultural Change." Psychological Anthropology, 1975.

24. Thompson, T. (Ed.). The Schooling of Native America. Washington, D.C.: 1978.

25. United States Department of Education. 1980 Annual Report, U.S. Department of Education. Washington, D.C.: 1980.

26. United States Department of Health, Education and Welfare, Office for Civil Rights. Data on Earned Degrees Conferred by Institutions of Higher Education by Race, Ethnicity and Sex. Washington, D.C.: 1979.

27. Whiteman, H.V. "Native American Studies, the University, and the Indian Student." The Schooling of Native America, 1978, p. 108.

28. Young, J., and Churchman, P. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Educational Research Association. Washington, D.C.: 1975.

Ellen S. Freark is Associate Professor of Education at the Pennsylvania State University. She holds the Ed. D. degree from the University of Houston and has been instructor to Native American students. She is also a member of the master's and doctoral degree committees for Native Americans at Penn State. Dr. Freark has three published books on curriculum and nutrition..

Margot M. LeBrasseur, who has an M. Ed. degree from Penn State, is a Chippewa. She has been an elementary teacher at the Ramah School, curriculum consultant for the Seneca Nation, and is presently with the American Leadership Training Program at Penn State.