Volume 21 Number 1
January 1982

Paul Marashio

ENLIGHTENING minds (Brown, 1971, p. 77)was the guiding aim for Native American education. For centuries, Native Americans accentuated the value of understanding the learning process and a holistic curriculum. What unfolds in the following pages is an examination of traditional Native Americans' perspective toward teaching and learning. Contemporary educators can learn a great deal from a traditional Native American learning model.

In traditional Native American societies, teachers helped the learner to perceive and to clarify the natural and spiritual worlds and to bring those two worlds into harmonious relationship. A major purpose for learning was survival within an unpredictable environment; accordingly, the teacher taught the learner about various ways for obtaining powers to mediate and to appease the disrupting environmental forces.

Since Native Americans relied on oral tradition to convey ideas, feelings, culture, attitudes and ways of life, the teachers acquired tremendous capabilities in passing knowledge on to future generations. Consequently, oral tradition induced a tremendous understanding of the learning process by the teachers who passed on the truths, wisdom, skills and knowledge.

A Native American had many teachers throughout his/her lifetime. Basically, close-knit communities were established where everyone depended upon everyone else for survival. An intricate network of kinship obligations was created with each relative assigned a role in the child rearing. Naturally, the parents were significant in the teaching process. They conveyed to the child the expectations of the family and the society. Plenty Coup elaborates:

Praising bravery made an indelible impact on a young child's mind. If there was a positive good attached to a certain feat, then the child was being encouraged toward this end. Bravery required physical endurance; therefore development of physical endurance was extremely important in Native American societies, especially when considering the extreme environment they continuously confronted. A clear example of physical endurance is that of Old Man Hat teaching his son that:

Besides self-discipline, the father may also have taught about the various precepts of the society and interpreted the precepts' meaning. Through the teachings, a close development of unity of family, kinship and society evolved.

Aunts and uncles were also teachers. They may have expressed the boundaries of a clan, the kinship ties, and sexual taboos, usually through teasing and joshing. Additionally, aunts and uncles could serve as sponsors for the youngsters for various rites of passage which required the instruction of the child in certain aspects of tribal beliefs.

Some teachings were handled by the "ceremonial practitioner." They became teachers primarily when someone was seeking power or wanted a vision interpreted. Even the animals became teachers as vividly discussed in Black Elk's The Sacred Pipe, especially in the explanation of the rite, "Crying for a Vision." A woodpecker spoke to the lamenter: "Be attentive . . . and have no fear; but pay no attention to any bad thing that may come and talk to you!" (see Note 3). In many instances, the animals were considered "Helpers." They may have been guardians who helped in times of trouble or helped with critical decisions.

Society may have been a teacher; for example, in Tewa and Hopi societies, a re-enactment of the creation myth helped to reinforce the societies' beliefs for the people. Such a ceremony involved everyone. From the ceremony, a community spirit emerged with the development of psychological togetherness, communitas.

In every Indian society, there were over-riding spirit forces who governed the universe; from these spirits, the people learned. Again, the clearest example I have found is the Sioux sacred pipe rites. The knowledge and truth gained from the rituals were given by Wakan-Tanka, the greatest teacher of all.

For the teaching process to be effective in an oral tradition, the teachers took full advantage of every available universal facet for instructional methods. Since the teaching process took into consideration the learning process, the teachers must at least have had a balanced perspective or have even placed greater emphasis on the learning process because the security and survival of both the individual and the society were dependent upon knowledge.

Since the imprint on the learner's mind must be lasting, the instructional techniques must be geared toward helping the learner learn in the most effective way. The Native American Implemented a wide variety of instructional techniques; questioning, stories, songs, dances, plays, ceremonies, visions, symbolism, impersonating the spirits (e.g., kachinas in Hopi society), playing and mimicking, and observation. All the teacher had to do was select the appropriate technique to help the person learn. In Son of Old Man Hat, the father stressed to the son the importance of asking questions. "So, if you want to ask a question, go ahead, because you want to learn all about these things, and I'm willing to teach you" (see Note 4). Through an instinctive sense, teaching was expressed at the right moment in the youngster's maturation. Knowledge of the right time to teach something probably occurred because of the intimate relationship of the teacher and learner. Whereas the learner wanted to know, the effectiveness of the teacher was increased in facilitating learning.

Whether instruction was focused on making a living or telling of stories or participating in ceremonies, the learner experienced a continuous discovery process. Unknown ideas, attitudes, values and universal forces and ways of life became known to the learner.

One of the most subtle techniques of making the unknown known is that of a powerful storyteller who could draw vivid pictures with words, leaving a lasting impression on a person's mind. A case in point is Spear Woman listening to:

An air of mystery and suspense contained within the stories aroused the learner's imagination. The children were spellbound by the suspense, curiously awaiting the outcome. Normally, the stories and songs were done at nighttime, enhancing the learning atmosphere. Usually the children asked to hear the stories over and over because the stories were intriguing. Stories and songs might deal with important questions, for example, Where did we come from? How do we lead a good life? How do we become good human beings? and Where do we go when we die? Each story and song taught the way of the society and the society's expectations of the learner.

Ceremonies were also effective instructional techniques. For example, through the perennial re-enactment of the Tewa origin myth, a lasting impression was inevitably imprinted in the minds of the participants. In addition, the Tewa rites of passage led the person along the path of becoming. A learner was instructed in the traditional beliefs and practices, emphasizing various aspects of Tewa culture. Then there was the rite of incorporation, the passage to womanhood and manhood. Finally there was the rite of separation, the releasing of the soul from this world. Alfonse Ortiz points out that "at the beginning and at the end of life . . . the Tewa emphasize solidarity rather than the dual organization" (see Note 6). What was recreated and re-enacted was the emergence of the various food peoples and their position within the Tewa society, the reasons behind the kiva, the sacred mountains, and the earth navels where the people emerged and where the spirits now reside. Within the myth, Tewa society's duality exists in the concept of Summer and Winter people. The Tewa e, the governing body representing both Summer and Winter people, have a communal cleaning ritual which was a witch hunt. During the Turtle Dance, the Tewa e impersonate the spirits, Tsave Yeh, who come to whip disobedient children and women and drunks who have been backsliders. From the Turtle Dance, "The unity of moieties is also being affirmed" (see Note 7). The Tewa e and the Tsave Yeh are symbolic of the unity and division within the Tewa society.

On becoming a Tewa, a person learned songs, prayers, and activities pertaining to every new level of existence. In summarizing the Tewa, Alfonse Ortiz places the Tewa ceremony into a beautiful learning perspective:

This holds true for all the other Indian societies in this study.

The Plains Indians had dramatic ceremonies, and the Sioux probably best represent this with their Sacred Pipe rites. These rites were all-encompassing, involving vision, stories, fasting, purification of mind and body, the powerful Sun Dance ordeal, the Making of Womanhood, and the Making of Relatives. Contained within the rites was the proposal of how to gain knowledge and truth. Black Elk speaks about the rites of the Sacred Pipe:

The general purpose behind ceremonies as instructional techniques was to help the learner to know how to change a disharmonious universe into harmony and balance.

Another instructional technique has been the impersonization of the spirits. Impersonators have been dressed with impressive masks representing a particular spirit and concealing a person's identity. The kachinas attempt to influence and appeal to the powers who control the world. They try to obtain a response to their request for rain and good crops; therefore, the kachinas teach that rain is necessary for life, happiness, harmony and survival. Further, there exists the belief in the Hopi world that there are many spirits that people must learn to appease, control or avoid if survival is to continue.

Symbolism has probably been the most widely-used instructional technique because symbolism is an exceptionally good way to approach teaching. The extensive use of symbolism can be observed in The Sacred Pipe. Every aspect of the pipe contains symbolism; for example, the buffalo on the pipe represents all four-legged beings, the eagle-the birds, the stem wood as grown on earth, the red stone bowl-the earth, and the pipe itself-mother. Other symbols used throughout the seven rituals are the "growing and dying of the moon reminds us of our ignorance - - . " Flesh also represents ignorance, and in the Sun Dance, when "we . . . break the thong loose, it is as if we were being freed from the bonds of the flesh" (see Note 12). Black represents ignorance, while red represents all that is sacred. Everything put into the pipe to be smoked has symbolic significance. Various Native American societies stress the four major directions, major colors, the rising and the setting of the sun. A good example of the totality of symbolic use is of the kachinas performing the Powamu society's initiation rite, symbolic representation of the importance of rain and fertility for the continuation of the Hop Wa.

Symbolism has the force of conveying the message.

Playing and mimicking was another way to teach children. The girls were given dolls and small tepees. They carried the doll the same way the women carried babies, and they would set up their tepees whenever the camp was built. The games for boys and girls revolved around life. There were games of traveling, playing camp, playing house and playing raiding party; therefore, work became play. In addition, there was the serious application where the boys were taken on hunting trips, or brought out to help graze the sheep or even on a trading expedition. These experiences brought the youngster into contact with a wider environment which included new people and new ways.

Finally, observation was acutely developed among the Native Americans. They could describe, in detail, events and activities of times long past. Sensitivity and awareness to the occurrences around them were developed to a high intensity. It was important to their survival to be observant of life's way.

The Native American continuously utilized the natural and spiritual environment in the learning process; the universe is the thing to learn, to understand, and to bring into a clear perspective. The instructional techniques give to the learner a power that can be constantly referred to whenever disharmony exists between the natural and spiritual worlds. It can then be concluded that the effectiveness of the instructional techniques is important because the Native American's education is directed toward the unity essential to the survival of their ways.

Praise was an important part of the learning process. Plenty Coup expresses the significance of praise in fostering learning:

Obviously, individual differences and personalized learning were taken into consideration. No penalty or stigma was attached to failure. A deep human understanding toward failure existed because failure meant the failure of the learner and the society to survive. Since unity was important to survival, then it was necessary that everyone learn the ways of the people.

Memory was the Native American's vehicle for the source of learning. Pretty Shields discusses the importance of memory:

As further elaboration of the use of memory, Son of Old Man Hat repeated sacred shepherding songs as taught by Old Man Hat. Each song had to be repeated with every word in its proper place.

The instructional techniques fostered the total immersion of the mind and the body into the learning process. Dramatically-told stories, legends and myths kindled the learner's imagination. In addition, the stories were repeated to encourage a lasting imprint on the learner's mind. Finally, the learner had to develop listening skills; as a result of the oral tradition, listening became an art.

Imagination and introspection were additional results of the seeking of visions. These gave the learner a variety of powers for direction in life. Basically, the vision encouraged the continuance of life's ways.

Learning was applied to everyday life whether it be spiritual renewal or practical application of how to raise crops, how to hunt, how to be a warrior, or how to raise sheep. Once a learner moved into the realm of learning about abstract powers, he came into contact with people of power, especially with the medicine man and the "holy man." These power people mediated the spiritual world with their powers by performing rites and rituals with the learner an active participant in seeking abstract power.

Discovering Who am I? and What am I? evolved from the Native Americans' understanding of the learning process. They learned their limitation in the physical world by learning to endure pain. There are many examples of walking barefoot and rolling in the snow, of jumping into ice-cold water so the body developed a tolerance for the cold weather. The Sun Dance of the Sioux is the ultimate in enduring pain; the piercing and tearing of flesh was important in their view if ignorance was to be superseded by understanding.

Learning and understanding came through suffering. As Old Man Hat concluded his instruction to his nephew, he brought out the idea of knowledge being gained but no understanding until "After you've suffered, then for all your knowing, you'll have a handful of things, and you'll look at them and won't know what to do with them. But you'll use them all the time" (see Note 17). Fasting was another form of physical endurance. Not only did the physical and mental endurance develop self-discipline, but in another way, it heightened the awareness of the learner to the realities of the environment. Most importantly, he gained powers to better help control the environment for a better life. As Crashing Thunder pointed out:

Moreover, the Native American gained an awareness of what should be avoided in the world, so the harmony and balance was not disrupted. Sun Chief speaks on this:

It was not uncommon in Native American society that children were brought quickly into an adult world, and their knowledge about the world was perceptive. Children at the ages of seven and nine had visions which shaped the direction of their lives and some received the power of prophecy.

Also learned was the concept of the brotherhood of animals and men, for the people depended upon the animals for living, for helping, to lead and to make decisions and to deal more effectively with nature's* ways. Evolving from this close and cherished relationship was an awareness and respect for the universal oneness of all.

From these experiences, the learner perceived the truth of the interrelationship of themselves with the parts and the whole of the Universe. They had an understanding of the invisible powers to mediate and appease the Spirit world, and of the limits of their powers, knowing further they could not live comfortably without the coordination of all aspects of the life forces within the universe.

What then evolved from the Native American's learning process was a development of the perception of reality for the learner so he/she might clarify the multitude of universal forces governing a society's survival. At this juncture, the learner could then effectively seek power to control the disruptive universal forces. However, it is significant that the learner replaced ignorance with knowledge, understanding and wisdom. Alfonse Ortiz places the learning model into a questioning framework:

While on the quest for knowledge, the learner would answer these questions.

The Native American holistic curriculum proposes a direction for EuroAmerican education. Presently, most Euro-American education experiences are segmented into a utilitarian educational experience because Euro-Americans place greater emphasis on those skills valuable to the work-a-day world. Today, the learner asks, "What will I do when I get out of school?" or "Of what value is this subject?" "Why do I need to learn this?" Euro-American society approaches life from a one-dimensional view; materialistic gain. Unfortunately, humanities are shunted. Contrarily, the Native American implements a full-dimensional educational experience with the learner submerged daily into learning through an inter-disciplinary approach about life, art, music, ethics, laws, hunting, culture, farming and self. From these combined educational experiences, the Native People learn about their interrelationship with the universe, consequently, understanding their role in the universal scheme.

Since spiritualism dominates their lives, a reverence toward all life permeates Native American's beliefs. With the present lack of reverence toward life existing in Euro-American society, a holistic approach toward education is realistic. A welding together of the humanistic and the utilitarian learning will provide a diversified educational experience with a curriculum offering job skills along with life skills. Further, the learner would be emerged into a questioning process requiring the discovery of knowledge. The teacher can create techniques requiring the learner to actually experience the learning through simulation procedures or tell stories that kindle the imagination, then discuss the interrelationship of the stories, the history, the culture, the environment, the universe and other learning experiences with the self, society, ethics, culture, morals and beliefs. Certainly, a constant reference question would be Who am I? By directing curriculum toward a balance between humanities and utilitarian, a harmony will lay upon the psyche of the learner with a clearer understanding by the learner of his/her universal role.

Brown, Joseph Epes (Ed.). The Sacred Pipe: Black Elk's Account of the Seven Rites of the 0glala Sioux. Baltimore: Penguin Books, Inc., 1971.

Dyk, Walter, Son of Old Man Hat. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1938. Linderman, Frank. American. New York: The John Day Company, 1930.

Dyk, Walter, Red Mother. New York: The John Day Company, 1932.

Marriott, Alice. The Ten Grandmothers. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1945. Ortiz, Alfonse. The Tewa World. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1969.

Radin, Paul. "The Autobiography of a Winnebago Indian: in California University Publications in American Archaeology and Ethnology, 1919-1920. Vol. XVI, No. 7. New York: Kraus Reprint Corporation, 1965, 381-473.

Simmons, Leo W. (Ed.). Sun Chief: The Autobiography of a Hopi Indian. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1942.

1. Frank Linderman, American, pp. 8-9.

2. Walter Dyk, Son of Old Man Hat, pp. 70-71

3. Joseph Epes Brown, The Sacred Pipe, p. 58.

4. Dyk, p. 79.

5. Alice Marriott, The Ten Grandmothers, pp. 142-143.

6. Alfonse Ortiz, The Tewa World, p. 56.

7. Ibid., p. 15.

8. Ibid., p. 27.

9. Brown, p. 95.

10. Linderman, p. 67.

11. Brown, p. 67.

12. Ibid., p. 85.

13. Leo Simmons, Sun Chief, p. 193.

14. Linderman, p. 9.

15. Linderman, Red Mother, p. 47.

16. Dyk, p. 267.

17. Ibid. p. 80.

18. Paul Radin, The Autobiography of a Winnebago Indian, p. 417.

19. Simmons p. 68.2

20. Ortiz, p. 27.

Paul Marashio is curriculum coordinator for the Salem School District, Salem, New Hampshire (03079). He holds the B. Ed. degree from Keene State College, the M.A. degree in history from the University of New Hampshire, and the C. A.S. in history from Wesleyan University. He has taught an eight-week course on Native American history and has published several articles on this subject.