Volume 18 Number 1
October 1978

James C. Martin

ROTTER identified the construct of internal-external control of reinforcement (I-E) as being the degree to which an individual believes his reinforcements are dependent upon his own behaviors (internality) or are controlled by forces beyond his control, such as luck or chance (externality)--(see Note 12). Researchers have subsequently attempted to relate locus of control to various personality variables. Externality has been correlated with low-ego strength (see Note 7) and poor personal adjustment (see Note 13). Lombardo, Fantasia, and Solheim (see Note 9) found that externals exhibited less self-acceptance than internals while Baldo, Harris, and Crandall (see Note 1) found that externals performed lower than internals on psychosocial developmental tasks. Overall, it appears that an external locus of control orientation is associated with negative personality characteristics while an internal orientation is related to positive personality characteristics.

A review of I-E research reflected an absence of studies which utilized children from different ethnic or cultural groups as subjects. Obviously, there is a need for research which examines the relationship between locus of control and personality adjustment in children from different ethnic groups. The purpose of the present study was to examine the relationship between locus of control and self-esteem in American Indian and white children, as well as ethnic differences.

Historically, American Indian children have been found to be more rejected, depressed, and withdrawn than white children (see Note 4). The Spindlers found that Indians have serious doubts about their personal adequacy (see Note 11) while Berry concluded that the Indian is plagued with feelings of alienation, anxiety, and inadequacy (see Note 3). Similarly, Coleman (see Note 5) reported that Indians tend to view themselves as being inferior to whites on measures of self-concept/esteem. Therefore, it seems probable that Indian children would score lower than whites on these measures.

In terms of locus of control, a review of the literature indicated that little is known about the development of this dimension of personality in Indian children. In comparing black and white children, Battle and Rotter (see Note 2) found that lower-class blacks were more external than lower-class whites. In another study, Graves (see Note 8) found that blacks were more external than whites and that Indians were more external than blacks. In general, previous researchers (see Note 10) have found that locus of control becomes increasingly internal with age and that internality relates positively to self-concept.

In the present experiment, it was predicted that white children would evidence higher self-esteem scores than Indian children. A second prediction was that the locus of control dimension would gradually become internal with age for both Indian and white children and that Indians would be more externally oriented than whites. Finally, it was predicted that internality would be positively related to self-esteem for both Indian and white children.

Locus of control was measured by the Nowicki-Strickland Locus of Control Scale (see Note 10). The NSLCS consists of 40 questions which are answered either yes or no by placing a mark by each question. The construction of items for the NSLCS was based on Rotter’s definition of the internal-external control of reinforcement. An individual’s total score is the total number of items marked in the external direction. Thus, the higher an individual’s total score, the more external is his locus of control orientation.

The initial hypothesis of the present study was concerned with differences in self-esteem between Indian and white children. It was predicted that white students would evidence higher self-esteem than Indian students. Analysis of the CSEI scores for Indian and white students revealed significant differences at the eighth and twelfth grades. The eighth-grade Indian students (X = 13.84, SD = 4.38) scored significantly lower than the eighth-grade white students (X = 15.17, SD = 4.65) on the CSEI (t = 2.5 1, p < .01 on a one-tailed test). Similarly, the twelfthgrade Indian students (X = 15.86, SD = 4.67) scored significantly lower than the twelfth-grade white students (X = 17.50, SD = 4.77) on the CSEI (t = 2.59, p < .01 on a one-tailed test). No significant difference in self-esteem was found at grade four. In terms of developmental trends, it seems that the present sample of elementary Indian and white students did not differ in their subjective evaluations of themselves. However, in the junior and senior high school grade levels Indian students evidenced lower subjective evaluations or self-esteem than did white students.

A second hypothesis of the present study was that the locus of control dimension would become more internal with age for both Indian and white children and that Indian children would be more externally oriented than white children. Table I presents the means and standard deviations for the Indian and white students’ NSLCS scores by sex. From Table I it can be seen that Indian and white students’ mean NSLCS scores decreased as the grade level increased. The lower the score on the NSLCS, the more internal the individual’s locus of control orientation.

For Indian males, fourth-grade students were significantly more external than eighth-grade students (t = 3.38, p < .01 on a one-tailed test) and eighth-grade students were significantly more external than twelfth-grade students (t = 6.23, p < .01 on a one-tailed test). For white males, fourth-grade students were more external than eighth-grade students (t = 5.07, p < .01 on a one-tailed test) and eighth-grade students were more external than twelfth-grade students (t = 3.55, p < .01 on a one-tailed test).

Similar results were found for Indian and white females. Fourth-grade Indian females were more external than eighth-grade Indian females (t = 4.72, p < .01 on a one-tailed test) and eighth-grade Indian females were more external than twelfth-grade Indian females (t = 3.93, p < .01 on a one-tailed test). Finally, fourth-grade white females were more external than eighth-grade white females (t = 4.22, p < .01 on a one-tailed test) and eighth-grade white females were more external than twelfth-grade white females (t = 3.85, p < .01 on a one-tailed test). In view of these findings, it appears that the locus of control dimension gradually becomes more internal with increments in age. This developmental trend of becoming more internal with age seems to be present in both Indian and white children.

Hypothesis two also predicted that Indian children would be more externally oriented than white children. This prediction was tested for males and females at grades 4, 8, and 12. The results of the comparisons are presented in Table 1. It can be seen from Table I that Indian males scored significantly higher than white males on the NSLCS at grades 4 and 8. No difference was found at grade 12. The results imply that Indian males were more externally oriented than white males at grades 4 and 8. Table I also shows that Indian girls were more externally oriented than white girls at grades 4, 8 and 12.

A final hypothesis of the present study involved a proposed relationship between locus of control and self-esteem. It was predicted that internality would be positively related to self-esteem for both Indian and white children. In other words, internals should evidence higher subjective evaluations (self-esteem) than externals. To examine the proposed relationship Pearson Product-Moment correlation coefficients (r) were computed between the Indian and white students’ CSEI and NSLCS scores at grades 4, 8, and 12.

Table II shows the obtained correlation coefficents (r). It can be seen from Table II that locus of control was significantly related to self-esteem for both Indian and white children. This relationship was found at grades 4, 8, and 12. It should be noted that the NSLCS was scored in an external direction. Thus, a significant negative correlation coefficient between NSLCS and CSEI scores meant that a decrease in external control was associated with an increase in self-esteem. The results imply that internality was positively related to self-esteem for both Indian and white children.

After establishing that locus of control was related to self-esteem in both Indian and white children, a question arose regarding the strength of the relationship. More specifically, did the relationship between locus of control and self-esteem vary according to the ethnicity of the students? To answer this question, the correlation coefficients obtained from the Indian and white students’ NSLCS and CSEI scores were tested for significant differences. Fisher’s Z scores were computed from Indian and white students’ correlation coefficients at grades 4, 8, and 12. The results of the comparisons are presented in Table II. It can be seen from Table II that the Fisher’s Z value was not significant for grades 4 and 8. However, at grade 12 the relationship between locus of control and self-esteem was significantly stronger for Indians than whites. Thus, for twelfth-grade students, the relationship between locus of control and self-esteem varied according to ethnicity.

Previous research (see Notes 3, 5, and 11) has indicated that Indian children do not develop as well as white children, in terms of personal or psychological development. This study examined the development of two dimensions of personality, self-esteem and locus of control, in Indian and white children. It also attempted to identify how self-esteem was related to locus of control in children from both ethnic groups. In the resulting analysis, it was concluded that Indian and white children do not significantly differ in their developmental level of self-esteem until the junior high school grades. At that level, the Indian children are significantly lower than white children in terms of self-esteem and this difference persists throughout the high school grade levels. Perhaps a focus for future research should be the period of transition from elementary to junior high school. It should be noted that this transitional period correlates with the onset of adolescence and it could be that Indian and white children may differ in their reactions to adolescence.

Concerning the development of locus of control in Indian and white children, the following conclusions were formulated. First, both Indian and white children tend to become more internal with age. As a child becomes older, he apparently feels that his behavior is controlled more by himself than by others. This finding is consistent with previous research (see Note 10). Second, white children perceive themselves as having more control over their actions than do Indian children. This difference was found at all three grade levels. The only exception to this was found at the twelfth grade and only for males. It seems that Indian and white children do differ in their locus of control orientation and this difference is evident by the time the students reach the fourth grade. Perhaps future research should specifically identify what factors influence the development of locus of control and determine if the contribution made by these factors is affected by ethnicity.

A final purpose was to determine if locus of control was related to self-esteem in Indian and white children. It was concluded that internality is positively related to self-esteem for both Indians and whites. This finding indicates that an internal locus of control orientation is associated with good mental health. It was further concluded that the strength of this relationship between locus of control and self-esteem is different for whites than Indians at the high school level. Future research should examine the possibility of developing an individual’s internal locus of control orientation. It could be that by increasing one’s internal locus of control orientation his subjective evaluation (self-esteem) of himself may show a corresponding improvement.

In summary, the present study has studied the development of two dimensions of personality in Indian and white children. It should be noted that the Indian children utilized in the present study were attending Oklahoma public schools and may not be representative of Indian children from other states. Ethnic differences in self-esteem and locus of control orientation were found at three grade levels. The causes of these differences was not a concern of the present study, but was left for future researchers to identify. It was also found that internality was positively related to social or personal adjustment for both Indian and white children and, more importantly, that at the high school level this relationship was stronger for Indians than whites. This finding suggests that the strength of the relationship between certain personality variables may be a function of ethnicity or cultural background.

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