Volume 16 Number 2
January 1977

William J. Benham

Note that the traditional term of "boarding school" in the above title has been changed to "residential school." It is a significant change that was recommended by BIA Chief Education Officers at one of their quarterly meetings last year. They said that boarding school refers to an institution that does not fit what is going on at BIA residential schools today. So, all BIA official literature now makes reference to "residential schools." A change in name does not necessarily signify a change in habits, but it does, however, signify readiness for change.

To be at a crossroads means a time of examination and appraisal which is antecedent to new directions. The BIA, and Indian people, are saying, "Where do we go from here with residential schools?" While I cannot in crystal ball fashion give a clear picture of where residential schools go from here, I believe I can provide some considerations that will be helpful in setting some basic guidelines.

First, residential schools are educational institutions and have always shared a common heritage with American education in general. It is not helpful to the crossroads situation of BIA residential schools to find American education in general weathering perhaps its strongest onslaught in history. We are being told almost daily how education is failing and how it is less necessary today than it was 30 and 40 years ago. As one who was raised to believe that to be an educated person is a virtuous goal, I cannot agree that education is less necessary or that it provides an inconsequential force in the lives of our Indian citizenry. Indeed, education is and always will be the driving force in American democracy and in Indian communities. This is perhaps best stated by Fred M. Hechinger:

While we are considering Indian residential schools, we also should remember that there are problems that go beyond the Indian communities. This aspect of Indian residential schools has always been a part of them.

It is important to emphasize the relationship between Indian education and the American education profession, for they share a common heritage. Recently I read a history of boarding schools in America (see Note 2). The book did not cover Indian residential schools and was devoted to the history of the so-called "prep" schools of America. Nonetheless, the prep schools were and are boarding schools and do share some common characteristics with Indian residential schools. American prep boarding schools borrowed heavily from European models that were run by such educators as Johann Pestalozzi. Their theory borrowed heavily from European philosophers such as Jacques Rousseau as expressed in his book Emile. The romantic notions of a Pestalozzi or Rousseau are not foreign to BIA residential schools in that they reflected an ideal in life, and the residential school seemed far enough removed from the corrupting influences of the home community to become a reality. The author of the history of American boarding schools stated that:

This is too familiar for comfort.

Another characteristic shared with non-Indian boarding schools concerned the manner in which various people, parents and students alike, view them. It seems that regardless of the high or low esteem in which these prep schools were and are held, it was done so with passion and high emotion. As we who are gathered here know, Indian residential schools are the source of much emotional by-play.

Without belaboring the point, I would like to quote you a version of student life that older Indian school graduates would appreciate.

How does this sound to older Indian graduates of residential schools? Enough of the American boarding school history and on to some important considerations concerning Indian residential schools.

It is important to point out that Indian residential schools have always changed with the times. To review their past it will be noted that earliest ones were run largely by churches and tribes to enhance the "civilization" of Indian youth, particularly males. These schools had a curriculum similar to that in American education in general from about 1815 to 1850. (The periods given here are loosely defined and gross estimates.)

Then, as boarding schools became popular toward the end of the 19th century, they became agriculturally oriented. The pastoral level of civilization, a level above the traditional Indian lifeways, was to be taught Indian youth, males and females. With the advent of the Meriam Report, residential schools fell into ill repute, and the move to replace them with day schools began.

Next, the vast Navajo Nation decided to go to school, and almost overnight, starting in 1950, there were not enough schools in the entire BIA to accommodate this large, sudden need for education facilities. So, the boarding school came forward to meet this need. Along with the Navajo need for education, there was a revival of residential schools as the community structure of the Navajo Reservation and the lack of easy communication necessitated construction of residential schools in new and unprecedented numbers (see Note 5).

About 1965, when the Navajo need for facilities was met, there emerged for a few years an extraordinary need regarding Alaskan Natives. There simply were not enough secondary school facilities in the State of Alaska to accommodate its Native population and, again, BIA residential schools came to the fore.

Today we are faced with a new situation, and I have referred to it as the "crossroads." Where do we go from here with BIA residential schools? I have some plausible suggestions to make regarding the situation in which we find contemporary BIA residential schools.

These are times of Indian self-determination, and this is an aspect of the residential schools that is new and extremely important. As never before in the history of Indian education, tribes are deeply involved in policy determination and administration and in the decision-making process regarding the very life of BIA residential schools. This fact alone has added a dimension to residential school operations that is unique and viable. It is without a doubt one of the most positive developments ever. Whatever the eventual outcome of the residential school crossroads situation, it will be greatly influenced by Indian tribal participation.

There are and always have been critics of Indian residential schools. As mentioned above, criticisms have usually been phrased in emotional language and put forth with passion. On the other hand, there are champions of Indian residential schools. Everyone knows of the very active and strong alumni association for Haskell Institute. There are the various advocates of BIA residential schools whose continuance is viewed as a part of the government’s trust responsibilities (see Note 6). In addition, our own survey of goals indicated that Indian people ranked the item, "Close boarding schools which established criteria indicates are no longer needed," as No. 52 out of a total of 52 items (see Note 7). The last thing Indian people want is to close BIA residential schools. By a large majority, the critics of BIA residential schools are non-Indians. Indians support residential schools.

Anyone who has worked in a residential school becomes a realist or else they do not survive. As a realist, it is a fact that enrollments are declining, especially in those located off reservations. What are the implications of this declining enrollment? This is a key question to ponder in this conference and for tribal members to ponder over the next few months and years as the crossroads situation evolves toward definite directions.

The buildings of BIA residential schools are old and worn, and in some cases there have been condemnations of structures in the middle of a year so that holding school becomes difficult if not impossible. In recent times only a few residential schools are replaced with new buildings, and in most instances, rebuilding existing residential schools has been held up. This is a key issue in the crossroads situation and one in which the Congress has a vital interest.

Congress plays a vital role in BIA residential schools operations: Indeed, it is a study of their cost that was asked for by Congress that called this conference together. This intense and long-standing interest of the Congress should be kept in mind as the crossroads situation is resolved, as it will play a vital role in the eventual outcome.

We hear a great deal about costs of residential schools and about criticisms lodged against them because of high costs. On the other hand, we do not hear enough about the students who attend them, their needs and what they are doing with the education they gain at the residential school. It is obvious to me that no study of the cost of the operation of a school can be valid without some serious considerations of the educational needs of the students. Indeed, this needs to be focus--not costs.

The report of the Oklahoma Indian Education Needs Assessment has some indicators which I believe deserve more detailed investigation and description (see Note 8). The report indicates that there is a large, unaccounted-for school-age group of Indian youth who begin leaving school starting at about the eighth grade. It also tells us that there are significant differences between Indians enrolled in public schools as compared to those enrolled in Bureau schools, both in achievement and in self-esteem. This is capped off with some reliable indicators that the social conditions of Indians in Oklahoma are influenced by a large group of very poor people. There is high unemployment, and some families send their teenagers to BIA schools simply because there is not enough food at home to meet the needs of their growing bodies.

In reviewing the situation closely--trying to be factual and realistic--it appears to me that there is a need for BIA residential schools. This need emanates from the characteristics of the students and the families from which they come. Emphasis should be placed on this fact as it will influence cost analyses significantly. The educational need to which I make reference describes a person who has serious personal, social, and educational problems. The needs of this individual are not met any place else in the society except in the BIA residential school. The same facts that describe this almost desperate educational need reflect that there are fewer students today than yesterday.

When I put it all together, looking from the facts to what is possible in residential schools of the future, it appears to be something like this: Indian tribes who are involved in decision making will be reviewing each residential school situation in detail. They will be making informed decisions and will be working with the BIA and with their Congressional delegations toward resolution of their need. In all likelihood, they will come forth with the concept of a community education center something like that suggested in the Oklahoma Indian Education Needs Assessment which said:

In such an institution, I visualize a highly effective residential school for a limited number of students with extraordinary needs. These schools will focus on being the most effective of their kind in the country and the world. This will be the main consideration. Costs will be an impqrtant but secondary consideration. These schools will be satisfied with a host of types of professionals who will have the proper attitude, skills and time to deal as needed with the students. The focus will be on the institution becoming small, humanly warm centers, where students with extraordinary needs will be welcome--and more importantly, will themselves feel wanted (see Note 10). In my view, and based on the facts as reported, perhaps it is unlikely that there will be a continued need for the very large residential school which enrolls more than a thousand students (or even 700 students) and which offers a conventional educational program. On the other hand, and again based on the facts, it is plausible to suggest the small residential school that can be the community education center for Indian tribes related to the existing residential school.

In closing, it is appropriate to note that two of the last three Commissioners of Indian Affairs are graduates of BIA residential schools. Commissioner Thompson has always held that the education he received at Mt. Edgecumbe High School was a quality one and has served him well. The same can be said of former Commissioner Robert L. Bennett and the education he received at Haskell Institute. All residential or boarding schools, Indian or non-Indian, have their distinguished alumni. In these days of self-determination when, more than ever, Indian participation in the political world is required, it is appropriate to close with another quote from the history of American boarding schools that I mentioned earlier in my remarks. It goes like this:

Yes, it continues to be the great challenge of our times, and I believe that there is no one group of individuals in the country who can make a significant positive contribution toward helping American Indian youth to a bright future than those professional educators assembled at this conference.

1. Fred M. Hechinger, "Murder in Academe: The Demise of Education," Saturday Review, March 20, 1976, p. 11.

2. James McLachlan, American Boarding Schools: A Historical Study. New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1970.

3. McLachlan, pp. 13-14.

4. McLachlan, p. 277.

5. For a discussion of the Navajo situation of the 1940-50’s, see George I. Sanchez, The People: A Study of the Navajos, Lawrence, Kansas: Haskell Press, Bureau of Indian Affairs, 1948.

6. Examples of the trust responsibility position are contained in the "All Indian Study Commission Report, Intermountain Boarding School, 1974" (BIA Education Research and Evaluation Report Series No. 24.01) and the Oklahoma Indian Education Needs Assessment, Oklahoma State University, Vol. 1, March 1976.

7. For a report of this survey, see the BIA’s IERC Bulletin, Vol. 3, January 1975.

8. See No. 6 above for details of the Oklahoma Indian Education Needs Assessment citation.

9. Oklahoma Indian Education Needs Assessment, Vol. 1, p. 50.

10. For an excellent research report of the problems of residential schools and dormitories and the alternative of small high schools, see Judith Kleinfeld, A Long Way From Home, Center for Northern Educational Research, University of Alaska, College, Alaska, 1973.

11. McLachlan, p. 298.