Volume 14 Number 1
October 1974

Michael R. Jackson and Kenneth A. Griffiths

SUMMER camping has been a familiar activity for most American youth for generations. Camping programs are found not only in America, but throughout the world, for all ages, cultures, and races of people. The opportunity to learn through direct experiences in nature were a part of everyday life for most of our early ancestors. To understand and appreciate the natural environment was a heritage to all youth, especially American Indian youth.

Undoubtedly, the first campers in America were the Indians. They were not limited to summer camping, but camped 12 months a year. Mitchell and Crawford have stated: "The Indians were the first great American campers and experts they were at it, for they left us vast stores of woodlore and camping know how, developed by their understanding hearts, their seeing eyes, and their intelligent hands." This quote points to the heritage of American Indian youth which they bring with them to summer camping activity, including potential for educational experiences in an outdoor setting.

The world wide success of the Boy Scout movement has proven the value of providing outdoor activities as recreational-educational experiences for youth. Indian youth are no exception to this international trend.

In researching the literature regarding summer camping programs, little is found concerning the American Indian camper. Since such literature is limited, it may not reflect many of the programs offered to youth on today’s reservations.

Some information was found concerning Camp Chapparel of the Wapeto Tribe of Washington and Camp Chitwhin of the Quinault Tribe, also of Washington. According to Underhill (1970), Camp Chapparel was developed in response to the tribal council and their concern for the youth on the reservation. The camp focused on curbing the juvenile delinquency problems. Tallakson (1970) reported that Camp Chitwhin offered six weekly sessions to Indian children ranging from pre-school to 12th grade levels. This camp focused on alternatives to normal educational processes and looked at the camp experience as the most important educational medium. The camp program was designed to fit the "needs" of the children, emphasizing a "process" approach.

One of the earliest tribe-sponsored summer camp programs was developed by the Ute Tribe of the Uintah-Ouray Reservation of Northeastern Utah. Since its beginning in 1959, the philosophical underpinnings for the camp have been conceptualized by professional leaders of the camp and tribal leaders. Professional leadership came from such fields as physical education, recreation, social work, educational psychology, elementary education, and secondary education. The varied philosophy of these professional leaders has been sifted over the years as the business, education, and recreation committees of the tribe, the campers and parents have responded to the program.

While the camp has served some youngsters each year since its inception, the year 1973 saw a return to a full camp program for Ute youth. The major content for this article is drawn from experiences with the 1973 Uintah Youth Camp.

The camp was designed especially for youth living on or near the Uintah-Ouray Indian Reservation. The camp consisted of two separate programs, a day camp geared for ages 5-10 and an overnight camp for ages 11-16. Sponsorship for the camp was mainly from the Ute Indian Tribe, with support from several agencies, including the BIA, U.S. Department of Labor, National Institute of Mental Health, the University of Utah Graduate School of Social Work, and Utah State University.

The camp allowed opportunities for children to be campers and some youth to be staff members. In this way the camp provided summer experience and activity for a large portion of reservation youth. The basic philosophy of the camp is found in its Ute name, NaNa-Mah, which signifies unity and brotherhood. Adding to the philosophy were purposes to enhance the educational, emotional, and social and cultural functioning of the children and youth. The camp program was designed to provide daily opportunities for enjoyable experiences of recreation, socializing and educational nature to expand the interests and outlets of the children. Programs were basically activity oriented and experientially based, but efforts were made to diversify activities to enhance self-awareness, improve self-concepts, develop cooperation and unity, build leadership and citizenship, and allow increased awareness and knowledge of the world around us through exposure to the natural surroundings of the out-of-doors.

The goals and objectives of the camp were concerned primarily with children and their attitudes rather than with skill development. Camp organization revolves around the small group concepts which involve all aspects of social living. The basic goals and objectives were as follows:

(1) Development of health and constructive self-expression; (2) development of responsibility (for self and peers); (3) development of self-worth (sense of belonging and expression of feeling in a non-judgemental atmosphere); (4) enhance social functioning; (5) improvement of peer and adult relationships; and (6) reduce prejudice and discrimination.

Camp NaNa-Mah is located in the northern limits of the Reservation at the mouth of the Uintah Canyon. The Uintah River flows through part of the camp which provided for many of the activities. Camping programs in the past were developed in this natural location, but it was last used in its totality in 1968 as a summer camp site.

Each camping session of the 1973 program lasted for two weeks, alternating with one another: day camp—two weeks, overnight camp—two weeks.

Camp NaNa-Mah exposed more than 300 children and youth to the activities and programs during the summer of 1973. Participation involved campers as well as staff members who reside on the Ute Reservation.

Children were divided into groups of ten with a counselor assigned to each group for the two-week period. Children were also aided by activity area counselors, student social workers, and the camp administration. Safety was always a top priority at camp, and many hours were spent educating the camp staff and campers in safety and first-aid skills. The local Public Health Service workers provided training in first-aid, food handling, sanitation, and general safety. Groups worked toward developing a close bond of friendship and a caring concern between campers, and campers and leaders.

Hiking—Daily short nature hikes were conducted by group counselors on and near the camp area. Campers were encouraged to find evidences of nature and learn to identify them. Hiking was also offered as camp groups went to and from an out-post camp area. A special hike was offered to groups who wanted a full backpacking experience in a remote area in the High Uintah Wilderness. Such hikes also facilitated working together, helping and sharing in a concerned way.

Fishing—Opportunity for children to fish on and off the campgrounds became almost a daily activity. The camp provided fishing equipment to those who did not have such. Counselors used fishing moments to discuss opportunities for learning and self-expression with the campers. Campers experienced the meaning of sharing as equipment was not always available or everyone.

Arts and Crafts—A full-time instructor was hired to develop a program of arts and crafts, and also photography. Campers were given instruction and experience in leather, wood, feather, bead, painting, plastics, and film developing and printing. This program was a favorite of nearly all campers. Self-expression and self-worth were emphasized in programming here. The atmosphere was non-threatening and non-judgmental, allowing campers to learn at their own pace.

Water Front Activities—A qualified staff member was responsible for all water activity, including swimming in the river and lake. The buddy-system was implemented to insure safety. Lifeguards were provided for all water front activities. Some Indian and non-Indian campers were buddies during these times. This provided a model for possible dissolution of prejudice existing on and around the Reservation.

Archery—A special archery range was part of in-camp action. Competition between the boys and girls and each camp group was keen. Campers learned to follow direction and enhance their social functioning through involvement in small group processes. Peer and adult relationships were important to the success of this type of activity.

Riflery—A popular activity for campers was found at the two rifle ranges; B-B rifles and air-pellet rifles were used. Close supervision was given in this area, and safety was stressed continually. Instructions were given around proper use, non-use and gun safety before campers were allowed to use the equipment. Learning and educational aspects were vital to the success of this activity. Campers were tested on their knowledge and basic skills, but learning was based on individual readiness which helped to build self-worth.

Field Trips - Each camp session has a field trip to the zoo and to a funland Park. These trips lasted the entire day, and emphasis was placed on group coesiveness and opportunity to learn. Campers identified with their respective groups which allowed development of social awareness and responsibility to self and others.

Out-Post Camping—For overnight only, each group had opportunity to camp out with tents, etc. Campers learned basic outdoor camping skills, including cooking, tenting, pioneering, and conservation. Emphasis was placed on learning by doing. This process gave campers an opportunity to build self-esteem and cooperation with others.

Campfire Programs—An outdoor amphitheatre was built to provide for campfire pro rams. Held every other night, they included singing, skits, puppet shows, story telling, and movies. Campers found this to be very challenging and not easy to cope with. Through staff support and example, campers were able to gain the self-confidence needed to perform in front of peers and adults.

"Scalp Stick Trail"—This began as an opportunity for groups to build camaraderie and leadership. Each group selected a chief and a name for their group or tribe. Competitive events were: tee-pee building, tug-of-war, foot races, Indian travois pull, and bow and arrow. Cultural awareness and identification were built into this activity. Attempts to dissolve prejudice and discrimination were other aspects of the experience.

Personal Development Programs—Each camp session had programs designed to develop awareness of various problems related to reservation life, Alcoholism, drugs, and prejudice were only a few of the topics discussed in each program. Campers were also exposed to individual and group counseling to enhance self-worth and allow for problem-solving when needed. This program was the cement for tying many other camp experiences together to help develop a meaningful experience for each camper.

These activities were conducted with a variety of alternatives and opportunities for exposure in this outdoor educational environment.

The following results have been accumulated from observations and descriptive studies of the campers and staff, before, during, and after the summer camp program. It is a common notion that American Indians are natural outdoorsmen and campers, but this was found lacking in some activities in the camp. Many campers were not the hikers and campers the staff had expected. It was difficult to get many children to commit themselves to hiking trips and camping opportunities. However, we discovered after the first few hiking trips, most campers were keeping up with staff members who were seasoned hikers. These hiking experiences became meaningful as close relationships developed between staff and campers, and evidences were observed in improved self-images and enhanced social functioning of many children.

A similar phenomena resulted in campfire and skit activities. The children initially had no interest in these activities, and camp groups almost dissolved in preparing for skit and campfire programs. However, this attitude shifted markedly as the days progressed and the youth eventually became more excited and enthused about this phase of the camp program.

Edwards offers some concise notions regarding group stages of development in Indian youth which are characterized by both verbal and non-verbal expression: (1) Anticipation and excitement—coupled with distrust; (2) active disorganized investment—coupled with rigid and extreme testing; (3) active, planned investment—coupled with ability to risk oneself if failure is not too widespread or recurrent; (4) commitment to group—coupled with interest in others and outside group activities.

These stages were also observed by staff in some groups during the summer camp sessions.

The "scalp stick trail" activity was another good indicator of significant changes made by many campers. This activity was culture oriented, again using the notion that Indian youth are naturally oriented to outdoor skills using age old Indian techniques such as bow and arrow, tee-pee building, etc. Groups were observed in developmental processes as mentioned by Edwards (1973) and also many of the camp objectives were observed by staff. The most outstanding developments were in responsibility--sharing, leadership, social functioning and healthy self-expression. However, some children became alienated from the groups as their performance in certain skills did not meet expectations of the group. Group counselors and other staff members were advised to watch for this reaction and to help these children work through their feelings and reactions.

Counselors worked with their groups to develop non-judgmental attitudes concerning children who did not meet certain expectations in various activities at camp. Emphasis was placed on the experience itself, not the quality of such. This premise is at times directly opposed to traditional educational ideas where emphasis so often is placed on quality of work and rewards are given through the grading system. American Indian children and youth, as noted by Witherspoon (1961) and Oviatt (1973) are well below the national averages in traditional school achievement and the school dropout rates on Indian reservations are distressing.

Havighurst (1970) has stated it is a well-known fact that American Indian youth do not do well in academic school achievement; yet they have as good mental equipment as do the white Americans. This concept was also supported by Griffiths (1967) in his research with Ute children. The use of outdoor educational opportunities in a summer camping setting may be one alternative for enhancing educational skills and attitudes of some American Indian youth who do not do well in traditional educational settings. Camp NaNa-Mah did provide the opportunity for many Indian children and youth to experience success. Success in learning new behavioral skills and success in working with others in an atmosphere of acceptance and trust in an environment where emphasis was placed on participation, not competition.

As with most organizations, many problems accompanied the successes observed through the summer. Trying to build a program from the ground level up can be a most frustrating and difficult task This is especially true when working on Indian reservations because numerous agencies are usually involved in developing many local programs. It becomes essential to have early input from all involved organizations to insure their support of the program and to get trained help in structuring the total camping effort.

Many problems during the camping sessions relate to staffing difficulties. Most of the money for staffing came from government sources and had to be used to hire reservation youth. Many of the youth hired were not always qualified for the positions due to lack of experience and education. Consideration should be given in the future to training and giving experiences to more reservation youth in order to develop a pool of qualified and capable workers. A pre-camp training session for staff of at least one week is essential in meeting this and other training needs of camp staff.

There is a need for year-round consistency in funding, staffing, and community support for summer camping programs. It is difficult to operate an adequate camp without proper year-round funding which will allow follow through with the multi-agency systems found on most reservations today. The year-round approach also contributes to building your camp staff earlier and having time for necessary training. It also keeps the interest of campers and families alive during the year, and insures the more adequate meeting of their interests and needs in the coming year. Most important, if the camp is to have the educational and socialization focus of youth, it must allow for knowing each camper’s educational needs in regular year programs and then building camp programs to meet these needs.

There also needs to be proper supervision and responsibility by a specific person or agency to allow consistency in camp program development. A year-round effort in this matter would help to establish continuity. An essential ingredient here would be to establish a youth camper council working with the regular staff person to stimulate continuous camper interest and insure camper input.

A closer liaison between tribal and local school officials would help reduce gaps in service and provide for greater alternatives to traditional educational techniques. Schools might eventually experiment with allowing certain credit for children who participate in the camping programs.

We learn with disappointment how painfully slow feelings of prejudice and acts of discrimination are dissolved. A continuing effort between school, community, and camp seems essential to educating without hurtful discrimination. Perhaps year-round collaboration in this area could be supported by the school systems and include educating and exposing, community residents to the problems that prejudice and discrimination breed.

There is a need for further research and evaluation of data gathering and analysis using more objective methods. American Indian summer camping programs need more evaluation as to the perceived effectiveness of programs and activities. Indian camping programs should consider building in funding to allow for evaluation and research.

In conclusion, despite many problems, Camp NaNa-Mah was considered a success by most participants and observers throughout the summer of 1973. Camping programs can work on our Indian reservations if given an opportunity. Educators may find these kinds of programs valuable to Indian youth and children who seem to struggle with more traditional school settings.

Konopka offers a suggestion: "For youth, the miracle and uniqueness of camping lies precisely in the fact that it offers a learning situation which is life and not a game that simulates it."

It is possible for Indian children and youth to gain new perspectives of themselves, find success, new sources for learning, personal satisfaction, and individual achievement outside the traditional classroom in summer camping programs.

Edwards, Margie E. "Social Work With Indians - A Group Work Approach" (Mimeographed paper, Graduate School of Social Work, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, 1973), p. 17.

Griffiths, Kenneth A. "Ute Pre-School" (Unpublished Doctoral Dissertation, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, 1967).

Havighurst, Robert J. "Mental Development and School Achievement of American Indian Children and Youth," The National Study of American Indian Education, (Vol. 1, No. 3, June, 1970).

Konopka, Gisela. "How To Make Camping Significant in the 1970s," Camping Magazine (Vol. 42, No. 1, January, 1970), p. 9.

Mitchell, Viola H., and Ida B. Crawford. Camp Counseling (Philadelphia: W. B. Saunders Company, 1961), p. 9.

Oviatt, Boyd E., Kenneth A. Griffiths and 0. William Farley. A Perspective of the Alaskan Native School Dropout (Social Service Resource Center, Salt Lake City, 1973).

Tallakson, Joe. Quinault Summer Education Program--1970 Final Report on Camp Chitwhin (QuinauIt Tribal Council, Taholah, Washington, 1970), p. 14.

Underhill, Ruth M. Ed. Youth Problems on Indian Reservations (University of Colorado, Boulder, Colorado, 1970).

Witherspoon, Y. T. "Cultural Influence on Ute Learning" (Unpublished Doctoral Dissertation, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, 1961).