Volume 13 Number 3
May 1974

SOME investigators of cross-cultural cognitive differences (e.g., Herrnstein, 1971; Jensen, 1969) have argued that low scores by non-whites on intelligence tests reflect underlying inferior intelligence. The low scores, they insist, cannot be accounted for wholly by cross-cultural differences. Most cross-cultural investigators, however, heed Cole and Brunner’s (1971) caution that one must avoid the pitfall of concluding that poor performance on instruments standardized for the majority culture implies lack of competence for members of minority subcultures. Indeed, a consideration of the differences between cognitive capacity and cognitive performance indicates that performance levels under particular conditions are but fragmentary indicators of capacity (Bortner & Birch, 1970). Test performance reflects the interaction between capacity and the particular conditions of previous training and current test demands. It may thus be concluded that the cognitive potential of members of one cultural milieu cannot be assessed accurately by the tests of another culture.

In spite of these arguments, however, cognitive testing appears to have an appropriate place within non-white school systems. Scores on cognitive tests standardized on a majority culture seem to be accurate predictors of academic success within the educational sphere of that dominant culture. Thus, scores of minority culture subjects on such tests may be considered good indices of future levels of academic success and performance as defined by the values and mores of the dominant culture. In no way, however, may they be considered indices of capacity or intelligence. Only within a very limited context, then, may cognitive testing be considered appropriate among American Indian students.

Within the realm of cross-cultural personality testing, few researchers have heeded Cole and Brunner’s (1971) caution. Most investigators unfortunately seem to assume that personality assessment transcends all cultures, and that a personality test valid and reliable for one culture is therefore valid and reliable for another culture. For example, many studies among American Indians use instruments standardized on the dominant white American culture without first assessing the appropriateness of such measures among Indian populations. Both Bryde (1966) and Krush, Bjork, Sindell, and Nelle (1966) employed the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI) among Indian populations, but they failed to supply validational data. Spilka and Bryde (1965) obtained no validational data for the following instruments in their study of Oglala Sioux secondary students: the Dean Alienation Scale, the Struening Prejudice Scale, and the Marlow-Crowne Social Desirability Scale.

A few investigators, however, have attempted to validate their measures. For example, Martin, Sutker, Leon, and Hales (1968) attempted to compare mental health of Indian subjects with that of white and Black subjects of comparable socio-economic status. First, however, they endeavored to determine the appropriateness of a psychiatric screening device, standardized on a non-Indian population, as an instrument for assessing the mental health of Indians. Both the instrument (the Cornell Index) and psychiatric opinion estimated approximately the same extent of psychiatric impairment. Furthermore, the overall agreement between the Index and psychiatric opinion was about 67 percent. Thus, the measure was judged to be an effective and valid estimate of the prevalence of emotional disturbance in an Indian population.

In a related study, Cress and O’Donnell (1974) investigated self-esteem among a sample of Oglala Sioux adolescents using Coopersmith’s (1967) Self-Esteem Inventory. Previous research suggested that the Oglalas had a high suicide rate (Maynard & Twiss, 1969), a negative ethnic image (Maynard, 1968), and felt inadequate and powerless (Mindell & Maynard, 1968). Presumably, then, self-esteem scores among Oglala adolescents would be low. Before examining this hypothesis, however, Cress and O’Donnell first attempted to demonstrate that the Self-Esteem Inventory was a valid measure of self-esteem among Oglala adolescents. Support for Coopersmith’s self-esteem measure is derived from relationships between self-esteem scores and objective, behavioral estimates of self-esteem, between self-esteem scores and peer popularity, and between self-esteem scores and academic achievement. Among the Oglalas, however, the predicted relationships among these measures were not obtained. These results suggest that Coopersmith’s self-esteem measure is not a valid estimate of self-esteem among Oglala adolescents.

Coopersmith’s theory of self-esteem was based upon such white, middle-class values as competition, achievement, and material prosperity, which are reflected in the importance of academic success and peer popularity. The Self-Esteem Inventory, then, was constructed to reflect self-attributes resulting from successful experiences within this value system. The traditional Sioux value system, however, is based upon bravery, generosity, and individual autonomy. Since the Sioux have not been fully assimilated into white American society, these traditional Sioux values have not been changed substantially through acculturation. It appears, then, that any assessment of self-esteem among the Oglala will have to take these traditional Sioux values into account.

The findings of Cress and O’Donnell (1974) have broad implications for the general use of standard personality tests among American Indians. These findings suggest that the validity of personality tests for American Indian populations cannot be assumed. In each case, there is need to demonstrate validity. All too often, validity is assumed and subsequent interpretations are treated as reliable and accurate. Such interpretations are, in fact, suspect.

In sum, it appears that cognitive testing among American Indian students has valid though limited usefulness. Although scores on cognitive tests may not be interpreted as valid estimates of capacity or intellectual potential, they may be seen as accurate predictors of academic success within the dominant culture. Personality tests, on the other hand, stand in need of demonstrated validity among American Indian populations. Until validational evidence is forthcoming, such measures can be considered neither accurate nor reliable. Furthermore, the use of such instruments among American Indian subjects is an abuse of both the measures--since they were neither validated nor standardized on Indians -and of the Indian subjects since any interpretations wrought from the results are unreliable and suspect.

Bortner, Morton, and Birch, Herbert G. "Cognitive Capacity and Cognitive Competence." American Journal of Mental Deficiency, 1970, 74, pp. 735-744.

Bryde, John F. The Sioux Indian Student. A Study of Scholastic Failure and Personality Conflict. Pine Ridge, South Dakota: Author, 1966.

Cole, Michael, and Bruner, Jerome S. "Cultural Differences and Inferences About Psychological Processes." American Psychologist, 1971, 26(10), pp. 867-876.

Cress, Joseph N., and O’Donnell, James P. "Self-Esteem and the Oglala Sioux: A Validation Study." Unpublished Manuscript. Southern Illinois University, 1974.

Herrnstein, Richard J. "I.Q." The Atlantic Monthly, 1971, 228(3), pp. 43-64.

Jensen, Arthur R. "How Much Can We Boost IQ and Scholastic Achievement?" Harvard Educational Review, 1969, 39(l), pp. 1-123.

Krush, Thaddeus P., Bjork, John W., Sindell, Peter S., and Nelle, JoAnna. "Some Thoughts on the Formation of Personality Disorder: Study of an American Indian Boarding School Population." American Journal of Psychiatry, 1966, 122, pp. 868-875.

Martin, Harry W., Sutker, Sara S., Leon, Robert H., and Hales, William M. "Mental Health of Eastern Oklahoma Indians: An Exploration." Human Organization, 1968, 27(4), pp. 308-315.

Maynard, Eileen. "Negative Ethnic Image Among Oglala Sioux High School Students." Pine Ridge Research Bulletin, 1968, 6, pp. 18-25.

Twiss, GayIa. That These People May Live. Pine Ridge, South Dakota: Indian Health Service (USPHS), 1969.

Mindell, Carl, and Maynard, Eileen. "Ambivalence Toward Education Among Indian High School Students." Pine Ridge Research Bulletin, 1968, 1, pp. 26-31.

Spilka, Bernard, and Bryde, John F. "Alienation and Achievement Among Oglala Sioux Secondary Students." Unpublished Manuscript. University of Denver, 1965.

Joseph N. Cress will receive his Ph.D. in psychology this summer from the Southern Illinois University at Carbondale, where he is presently on the faculty of the Department of Psychology. He is interested in delivering mental health services in a community setting, and has an extensive background both on and off the reservation in the areas of clinical, diagnostic and therapeutic psychology.