Volume 12 Number 1
October 1972

James De Vries and Lee M. Swan

THOSE concerned with the education of disadvantaged adults have continually emphasized certain principles as crucial to programming meaningful learning experiences. Two principles which seem to be stressed by many writers are: (1) programs must be specifically designed to meet the needs of individual or small homogeneous groups of disadvantaged learners (see Note 1), and (2) the value set of the learner must be respected and his self-esteem should be enhanced by the learning experience (see Note 2). These principles are so basic to the field and, in fact, to all adult education, that most are familiar with them. In our view, the failure of educational programs in meeting the needs of the disadvantaged is generally due not to an unawareness of educational principles but rather an unwillingness or inability to put these principles into practice.

In their review of the literature, Anderson and Niemi note that research is needed to show the effectiveness of various approaches to educating disadvantaged adults. They state, "There is no clear perception of the kind of educational programs required nor of the form of education which is acceptable to the disadvantaged adult" (see Note 3). Educational principles are of little value unless they are put into practice. This article describes how one program tried to implement sound educational principles and the effectiveness of this approach.

The Great Lakes Apprenticeship Center (GLAC), located in Green Bay, Wisconsin, began operations in July, 1969, funded by a grant from the U. S. Department of Labor. It is administered cooperatively by the Great Lakes Inter-Tribal Council and the Northeast Wisconsin Technical Institute. The program aims at helping disadvantaged American Indians qualify for, obtain and hold better jobs. The project staff includes a director, teacher, counselor and two job developers.

With a flexible design to meet the learner’s needs, the GLAC program was specifically designed to serve the needs of disadvantaged American Indians in Wisconsin. As such, it ensures a rather homogeneous clientele group. In a real sense, the program is tailor made for a particular type of clientele--young men from low-income backgrounds who have been unemployed for up to a year. Training, counseling and placement are the three basic services of the program. Depending on the participant’s need, he may receive any or all of these services.

Participants who are considered qualified for on-the-job training at the time they come to the center are placed directly in a job if a suitable position is available (13% are placed directly). If not ready for placement they enter training. About 15 trainees are accepted for each eight-week training/counseling session.

Training depends on the individual’s needs. Two weeks are devoted to orientation and evaluation (to determine competency and vocational goals). For those who need it, the training from the third through the eighth week aims at improving basic skills in reading, vocabulary and math. Through a variety of methods such as field trips, films, guest speakers, written material and discussion groups, the program also aims at teaching the trainees about the "world of work." An attempt is made throughout the program to provide a variety of materials and approaches. Learners can choose those materials and work on those areas which they feel best meet their individual needs and learning styles.

The job developers work closely with the trainees in obtaining jobs and do some follow-up after placement. Job placement may come at any point in the eight-week period depending on the trainees' qualifications and availability of a position. Many receive on-the-job training in specific skills.

Trainees who are still not considered qualified for placement after eight weeks in the program may be held over for further training or may be placed in other institutions, such as the Northeast Wisconsin Technical Institute.

The program is controlled by Indians and most of the GLAC staff are Indians. As such, it has been possible to create a learning environment which respects and values the trainee’s identity and cultural heritage. Most important, the trainee is respected and valued by all in the program.

During the orientation period, learners are helped to evaluate themselves, their future and what they must do to reach certain goals. The aim is to have the learner see himself realistically. His abilities and resources are identified as well as his weaknesses and needs.

Subsequent weeks of training include sessions on Indian history and culture. Hopefully trainees see positive aspects of their heritage which are so often neglected in public schools. The aim is to gain pride in this heritage rather than viewing it as a handicap. Extensive group and individual counseling also helps the trainee gain a more positive view of himself and his future. As the program is kept small, there is a great deal of personal contact between the trainees and the staff. The flexible design also makes it possible for each learner to assume responsibility for his own learning and to be treated as an adult.

Methodology and Population. Two measures, trainee employment adjustment and participant evaluation, were used in evaluating the program. Changes in employment adjustment were determined by comparing annual income, hourly wage on most recent job and weeks employed annually before and after training.

Data for the study were collected via a questionnaire mailed to 113 trainees who completed the program. Those who were placed directly on a job (25) and those who quit or were terminated from the program (48) were not included as they had not received all the services of the GLAC. Forty-three percent (49) of the questionnaires were returned. This low return rate was partially because of a lack of current addresses. Questionnaires returned and those known not to have been delivered to former trainees constituted over 70% of all questionnaires sent. A study of demographic background characteristics found no significant differences between respondents and non-respondents.

Results--Employment Adjustment. At the time of the survey, 79% of the former trainees were working on full-time jobs or in school. Trainee employment adjustment improved significantly after training as shown in Table 1.

Annual income rose by about $1,400, an increase of more than 60% over the pre-training level. Trainees worked an average of seven weeks or 22% more and earned 32 cents or 11% more on their last job.

Changes in employment adjustment were also computed for various types of trainees. Trainees were divided according to six background characteristics: (1) age, (2) marital status, (3) education, (4) annual income, (5) weeks of unemployment prior to training, and (6) years in the labor force. Table 2 reveals that employment adjustment of almost all categories of participants improved: more importantly the trainees with poorest pre-program employment adjustment experienced the greatest post-program gains. As a result, the gap between the "underemployed" and those with relatively high employment adjustment prior to the program was substantially reduced.

As no control group was included in this study, statements about the relationship between training and changes in employment adjustment must be speculative in nature. Part of the changes noted may have been due to a regression effect (see Table 2). Maturation of the trainees may also have been a factor. It is likely that both of these factors had some influence. But as the changes were large it also seems that the program facilitated improvements in employment adjustment, especially for those with poorer employment records.

Results--Participant Evaluation. Overall, trainees rated the program very favorably. When asked what they liked most about the program, most chose the counseling, Indian history and culture, and basic skills education. There was no clear agreement on weaknesses of the program.

When trainees were asked to list the most important way in which they were helped by the program, slightly less than half (46%) named some work related benefit and 36% named benefits related to personal development. Table 3 shows what trainees considered to be the six most important benefits of the program. These are directly in line with the objectives of the program. Trainees felt that the program helped improve their employment adjustment and their self-esteem.

Overall it may be concluded that the program was successful in facilitating improvements in trainee employment adjustment. The fact that these improvements were the largest for those with the poorest pre-program employment adjustment seems to indicate that the program is able to help those who need the help the most. This in itself is rather unique for a program of this nature. Trainees also felt the program improved their employability and assisted them in obtaining better jobs. They also noted increased self-confidence as an important benefit of the program. It may thus be concluded that the program is successfully meeting the needs of its clientele.

Was the success of this educational effort due to the fact the program was specifically designed to meet the needs of a small homogeneous group of disadvantaged learners and because the learner’s value set was respected? The changes in employment adjustment, trainee evaluation of this program and conclusions to be drawn from the adult education literature strongly suggest they were contributing factors.

1. Anderson, Darrill and John A. Niemi, Adult Education and the Disadvantaged Adult, Syracuse: ERIC Clearinghouse on Adult Education, April 1969, p. 62, Riessman, Frank, Strategies Against Poverty, New York: Random House, 1969, p. 51, Williams, Robert L., "What are we learning from current programs for disadvantaged students?" Journal of Higher Education, 40, April 1969, p. 277. Witty, Paul A., et al., "Principles and practices in compensatory education," in Witty, Paul A., (Ed.), The Educationally Retarded and Disadvantaged, 66th Yearbook, National Society for the Study of Education, Chicago, 1967, pp. 79.

2. Anderson, and Niemi, op. cit., pp. 59, Riessman, Frank, The Culturally Deprived Child, New York: Harper and Row, 1962, pp. 112, Spiegler, Charles G., "Provisions and programs for educationally disadvantaged youth in secondary schools," in Witty, op. cit., pp. 187.

3. Anderson and Niemi, op. cit., pp. 41.

4. Wisconsin State board of Vocational, Technical and Adult Education, Great Lakes Inter-Tribal Pre-Apprenticeship Program, an unpublished paper, Madison, Wisconsin, 1971.