Journal of American Indian Education

Special Edition
August, 1989
LEARNING PREFERENCES OF CAPABLE AMERICAN INDIANS OF TWO TRIBES
Barbara J. Walker, John Dodd, and Rose Bigelow
A preferences scale based on four types of learning preferences was employed to determine which preference would be indicated most frequently by a selected group of Native American adolescents. The pattern-symbols preference was selected by the majority. When the group was divided by sex, it showed the females were more evenly divided in their learning preference than the males. Suggestions are made for teaching activities which would be compatible with the preferences indicated by the majority of males. The key factors indicated where a preference for small-group activities that allow for personal interpretation of the subject in a cooperative rather than competitive learning environment.
There is no apparent reason to believe American Indian youngsters have basic cerebral differences from other youngsters (Chrisjohn & Peters, 1986; Stellern, Collins, Gutierrez & Patterson, 1986). But there is also little reason to expect that youngsters who grow up on reservations have the same cultural experiences as children in the mainstream of society. Both tribal differences and the relative isolation of reservations suggest uniqueness. Certainly cultural differences deserve recognition, and where resultant behavior indicates uniqueness, educational programs or procedures should be revised accordingly. Therefore, it is clearly relevant to determine the American Indian children's preference for learning.
Learning preferences are distinctive ways in which individuals learn from their environment. Individual differences in preferences for learning methods have been identified (Dunn, 1983). Studying preferences indicates how persons believe they react to learning situations. The study reported in this paper used an instrument (Walker, 1984) which identifies the following four learning preferences: 1) outlined symbols, 2) patterned events, 3) outlined events, and 4) patterned symbols. They are based on the inter-action of two continua. One continuum is based on organizing information either sequentially or simultaneously. The other continuum is based on the kind of information used. Some people appear to arrange words or symbols, while others arrange concrete events (Butler, 1984; Gregorc, 1982).
This paper reviews the characteristics of these four different learning preferences, emphasizing those attributes which influence success in school. An explanation of the current school curriculum is included to show which preferences appear to be tapped in school. Then, the results of scores of capable American Indian students who participated in a summer college program will be reported. These results will be discussed in light of present school curricula. This is followed by suggestions for instructional adaptations that would utilize learning preferences of the majority of these students.
Attributes of the Four Preferences
The following description elaborates the general attributes of the four distinct preferences that were used in this study. They result from an interaction of the two continua. In other words, a person can prefer to organize concrete events sequentially or simultaneously. Or a person can prefer to organize verbal information sequentially or simultaneously. According to Walker (1984), these interactions give rise to four distinct learning preferences: 1) Outlined Symbols (organizing verbal information sequentially), 2) Patterned Symbols (organizing verbal information simultaneously), 3) Patterned Events Learner (organizing concrete events simultaneously), 4) Outlined Events Learner (organizing concrete events sequentially).
The Outlined-Symbols Learner
For the outlined symbols learners, meaning is gained from verbal or visual symbols presented in a logical way. These learners seem to prefer to gain new information by researching and reading textbooks because these sources organize information in precise, logical, categorical structures that are similar to their own thinking (Gregorc, 1982). This allows them to formulate ideas and relate this new information within logical hierarchical categories while they read and write. These learners prefer a lecture that is logically and sequentially presented. For these students, group discussions are often tiresome because they cannot follow the rather loose structure that is filled with personal associations rather than substantiated theories.
The Patterned-Symbols Learner
For the patterned-symbols learners, meaning seems to be gained from personal associations developed through patterns of communication that are both verbal and nonverbal. These learners appear to be attuned to vocal intonation during discussions and they use this emphasis to distinguish what is important. They draw personal symbolic relationships between what they know and the new information. Thus, these students seem to be more comfortable when allowed to make personal interpretations of new information and to share this interpretation in a nonjudgmental situation (Butler, 1984). They find reading new information useful when it is followed by a discussion that relates this information to self.
The Patterned-Events Learner
For the patterned-events learners, meaning seems to be gained from real-life experiences where experience is conceptually connected in patterns. These students prefer to conduct an experiment to gain new information. They like to try out the new concepts so they can develop a variety of solutions to the problem, rather than only one right answer. This allows the learner to establish how the event will relate to all previous personal experiences (Walker, 1984). Since these learners organize information around personal life events rather than precise categorical relationships, they find communication with words difficult and time-consuming. Relying on their varied experiences, these students are able to find common features in seemingly unrelated events; therefore, they prefer to demonstrate how this new information can be applied in a distinctively different situation.
The Outlined-Events Learner
For the outlined-events learners, meaning seems to be gained from specific sequential events. These learners prefer that someone demonstrate in an outline the separate parts of information and how this information relates to a previous concrete experience. They like to practice the discrete skills before putting them into a whole, and their learning is greatly enhanced by direct experience. Because these students want to do it exactly the "right way," they prefer to know both the exact format needed to complete the task and what they are expected to learn (Gregorc, 1982). Workbooks allow this to happen. If these students are given new information in a structured, logical format they will refine and relate this information to previous facts in a precise logical manner.
Demands of Schooling
These four preferences affect the way students deal with the demands of public schooling. In fact, some preferences seem more consistent than others with the expectations of public school curricula. The focus of public school curriculum over the past several decades has become increasingly fragmented, emphasizing the separate parts of content through narrowly defined objectives (Anderson, et. a]., 1985). Students are taught isolated skills, which are practiced in workbooks. To evaluate mastery of the subject, students are given short-answer or recognition tests that assess the specific task taught rather than the integration of the skill with the entire content. Facts are emphasized rather than interpretations. Right answers are emphasized rather than the application of the information. This type of learning fits the outlined-events learner who prefers to learn the discrete parts and the facts of the subject. Their desire to be right is reinforced through workbook exercises that are checked and corrected in a regimented fashion. However, students who prefer to learn by interpreting the facts through relating them to personal experiences are often at odds with this curriculum that is so steeped in right answers and precise facts.
Method
Subjects
A learning preference scale (Walker, 1984) was used to gather information on the individual learning preferences of Native American adolescents who participated in the 1986 Upward Bound Summer program at Eastern Montana College. For participants, the Upward Bound program is designed to generate skills and motivation necessary for success in education beyond high school. The project provides services such as: (1) Instruction in reading, writing, study skills, mathematics, and other subjects necessary for success in education beyond high school; (2) Personal counseling; (3) Academic advice and assistance in high school course selection; (4) Tutorial services; (5) Exposure to cultural events, academic programs and other activities not usually available to disadvantaged youth; (6) Activities designed to acquaint youth participating in the project with the range of career options available to them; (7) Instruction designed to prepare youth for careers in which persons from disadvantaged backgrounds are particularly underrepresented; (8) On-campus residential programs; (9) The same academic services during the school year.
To be eligible to participate in the program, a student has to be from schools selected, due to the high number of low-income students enrolled, and be first-generation in college, low-income, or disabled. The majority of the Upward Bound program participants on the Eastern Montana College campus were Native American. The scores obtained on the Walker Learning Preference Scale were employed in this study. The sample was composed of 28 participants who indicated they were American Indians: seven Northern Cheyenne males and seven Northern Cheyenne females; eight Crow males, and six Crow females.
The Instrument
A ten-item forced choice instrument, the Walker Learning Preference Scale, which is used to identify individual learning preferences was used in this study. Each item asked the student to rate four phrases that dealt with distinct learning situations. A score of four is given to the phrase that is most like what students preferred when learning something new. Scores of three and two were given for activities somewhat similar to their learning preference. A score of one was given to the activity that was least like the way students learned new material (see Example Items in Figure 1). Each category was scored for the ten items, resulting in four scores for each of the learning-preference categories. A score above 28 on any one learning style continuum is considered to indicate a preference for learning in that particular fashion.


OE OS PS PE
Look At The Facts Write About It Talk With Friends Draw a Picture

Figure 1. Example Items
Walker Learning Preference Scale

Results and Discussion
Results
For this study, the Walker Learning Preference Scale was scored and each student was placed in a preference category according to the resulting highest score. When the results were divided by tribes the following data were generated.

TABLE 1
Results of Walker Learning Preference Scale By Tribe

  OE OS PS PE
Crow 3 1 9 1
(14) (21%) (7%) (64%) (7%)=
99%        
Cheyenne 3 1 7 3
(14) (21%) (7%) (50%) (21%)=
99%        

The percentage of scores for the population and subpopulation were calculated. For the entire population, the primary choice was Patterned Symbols preference (57%). Other preferences in declining order were: Outlined Events (21%), Patterned Events (14%), Outlined Symbols (7%). When the subjects were separated according to gender, the resulting percentages changed to reflect a high percent of the male students preferring Patterned Symbols (66%) (see Table 2). The other categories have the following values (OE = 20%, OS = 0%, PE = 13%).

TABLE 2
Results of Walker Learning Preference Scale
Totals by Sex

  OE OS PS PE
Males 3 0 10 2
(15) (20%)   (66%) (13%)=
Females 3 2 6 2
(13) (23%) (15%) (46%) (15%)=

The Northern Cheynne female students were evenly distributed in their indicated preference on the Walker Learning Preference Scale for three preferences (OE = 28%, PS = 28%, PE = 28%) with OS having a value (OS = 14%).

TABLE 3
Results of Walker Learning Preference Scale
By Sex and Tribe

  OE OS PS PE
Crow Males 2 25%   5 (62%) 1 12%
Crow Females 1 (16%) 1 (16%) 4 (66%) 0
Northern Cheyenne Males 1 (14%)   5 (71%) 1 (14%)
Northern Cheyenne Females 2 (28%) 1 (14%) 2 (28%) 2 (28%)
Note: One female had an identical score in OE and PS.
The data was arbitrary placed on the PS column.

Discussion
The results indicate that in this small sample many of these American Indian male students had a preference for Pattern-Symbol learning. As a group, the female students were more evenly distributed in their preferences. Furthermore, all preferences were present in the sample indicating a need for flexible curriculum planning in the public schools. In this study, it appears that those teachers working with American Indian male students should consider some of the key attributes of the pattern-symbol learner. The discussion will detail the attributes of the pattern-symbols learners and activities that would enhance their learning.
Preferring small-group discussion where personal intepretations are encouraged and new information is shared, patterned-symbols learners like to discuss the new information in a non-competitive atmosphere where knowledge and interpretations are shared. While discussing the information, this learner thinks of analogies that relate the new information to prior knowledge. The student, then, talks about previously learned information and relates it to the new information. It is through this verbal communication that ideas are formed and information learned. Therefore, specific facts seem irrelevant in relation to the personal interpretations that can be developed as one learns. This mode of learning takes time; therefore, these students work better when there are no time limits on assignments so they can develop an overall general understanding of the subject and interpret the information.
These attributes lead to another characteristic of these students: They prefer to learn information that is personally interesting to them; therefore, interest is a key factor in their learning. When these students are not interested in a subject, they do not control their attention and orient themselves to learning an uninteresting task. Rather, they allocate their attention to other ideas that are more personally interesting, thus appearing detached from the learning situation. When a subject is interesting, they learn the information and then creatively express this new learning through artistic activities, such as drama, dance, creative writing or drawing. This variation in response to learning new information confuses teachers. Teachers of these students often comment, "I know Calvin can do the task because just last week he wrote the most creative essay on Battle of the Little Bighorn. He must be just lazy. I don't know what to do with him." This troublesome situation can be avoided with appropriate instructional adjustments.
As indicated, these particular attributes often are not reinforced in the public school curriculum where the majority of learning is expected to occur during seatwork activities with little teacher direction. These seat work activities are graded for accuracy. Therefore, students are in competition with each other for grades as well as for acquisition of knowledge rather than engaged in non-competitive group discussions. Seldom is the idea of shared knowledge reinforced in public schools. Often, learning is expected to occur during a lecture presentation by the teacher. Even though these teachers use analogies to explain new concepts, students are seldom asked to generate their own analogies to interpret information. These same teachers believe the students should be interested in what they learn; however, they feel compelled to deliver the content in the textbooks. So, they develop elaborate lesson plans to introduce new concepts in an interesting fashion. The presentation seldom builds on what the students know and think. Even though the presentation is interesting, it rarely coincides with the student's interests and prior knowledge.
Because of their learning preferences, pattern-symbols learners are often at odds with the structured presentations and seatwork activities that are prevalent in the public schools. More diverse instructional activities would facilitate learning for these students. Suggestions for instructional modifications to meet the diverse-learning preferences in any classroom follow.
Suggestions for Activities
Classroom instruction which relates to the pattern-symbol learner preference can be incorporated within present instructional activities. Small-group discussion of information is the most easily implemented instructional adjustment. Asking students to relate new information to personal experiences and ideas will enhance the learning not only for the patterned-symbols learners but for all students (Pearson & Johnson, 1978). Furthermore, products and conclusions from the group discussion are not necessary. These students prefer to personalize the information rather than to produce a product. A sequence of activities for a topic in high school would look something like the following: (1) Introduce topic with a short informational presentation, (2) Have students read a short passage with the important information, (3) Have small groups develop personal interpretations, (4) Review information and personal interpretations, (5) Expand on topic, and (6) Assess, using essay exams that ask for information and interpretation. Group discussion as an exam is also extremely effective.
Specific activities may also be used. To develop word meanings, new vocabulary words may be presented using similes and analogies. For example, if the topic is volcanoes, the teacher could ask, "What animal is like a volcano? How is it like a volcano and how is it different from a volcano?" This allows the pattern-symbol student to draw personal similes to facilitate understanding the new concept. To develop comprehension, story drama, in which the students role play outcomes of stories, may be used. In this procedure, a story is read until there is enough information about the characters and about the story line for students to assume the roles of the characters. The story drama begins at the point of interruption, and the students actually dramatize their personal interpretations of how the story problem will be resolved. As the small group acts out the story, interpretations are verbalized and revised through group interaction. Besides role playing, these students also prefer to watch a movie about what they are expected to learn. Movies allow them to personally interpret the information while seeing the entire concept all at once. After the movie, they like to talk about how they interpreted the information presented.
Summary
In this study, the subjects did indicate a preference for learning information. Furthermore, all preferences were present in the sample indicating a need for flexible curriculum planning in public schools. No marked preference was indicated for the female students in this study. Therefore, the discussion has focused on the predominant preference for the American Indian male students which was a preference for pattern-symbols learning. Many activities can be developed to be used with these students. The key factors are small-group participation, allowing personal interpretation, and a cooperative, rather than competitive, learning environment. Teachers who incorporate these factors will experience more success when teaching the pattern-symbols learner. Likewise, these students are more productive when the information is personally interesting to them. Teachers who use the students' interests integrating new concepts with what students know and like will also experience more success when teaching the patterned-symbols learners.
Recommended Further Research
While this preliminary study provided interesting results, research is needed to determine the applicability of these results to different tribes and different age groups. Greater numbers should be studied to determine if outcomes are consistent with these findings. Preferences of tribal members living on reservations should be compared to those of their urban counterparts, and intertribal comparisons should be made.
Barbara Walker is the Chairperson, Language Arts and Early Childhood Education at Eastern Montana University. John Dodd is a Professor at the Institute for Habilitative Services, Eastern Montana College. Rose Bigelow is a Graduate Assistant at the Institute for Habilitative Services, Eastern Montana College.
REFERENCES
Anderson, R.L., Hiebert, E.H., Scott, J.A. & Wilkinson, I.A.G. (1985). Becoming a Nation of Readers: The Report of the Commission on Reading. Washington, D.C.: The National Institute of Education.
Butler, Kathleen A. (1984). Learning and Teaching Style In Theory and Practice. Maynard, MA: Gabriel Systems, Inc.
Chrisjohn, R. & Peters, M. (1986). The right-brained Indian: Fact or fiction? Journal of American Indian Education, 25 (2), 1-7.
Dunn, Rita (1983). Learning style and its relationship to exceptionality at both ends of the spectrum. Exceptional Children, 49 (6), 496-506.
Gregorc, Anthony (1982). An Adult's Guide to Style. Maynard, MA: Gabriel Systems, Inc.
Pearson, P.D. & Johnson, D.D. (1978). Teaching Reading Comprehension. New York: Allyn & Bacon.
Stellern, J., Collins, J., Gutierrez, B. & Patterson, E. (1986). Hemispheric dominance of Native American Indian students. Journal of American Indian Education, 25 (2), 8-17.
Walker, B. (1984). The Walker Learning Preference Scale for School Children. Unpublished manuscript. Eastern Montana College.

 
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